Science, Technology & Society — Comprehensive Study Notes

Definition of Science

  • Derived from Latin word “scientia” meaning knowledge.
  • Defined as the systematic body of knowledge that seeks to produce plausible explanations and predictions about the universe / natural world.
    • Relies on a rigid, verifiable methodology.
    • Emphasises empirical evidence, objectivity, accuracy, replicability.
  • Significance
    • Provides foundation for technological progress, medical breakthroughs, and informed decision-making in society.
    • Forms the knowledge base that Applied Sciences transform into technologies.

Main Fields of Science

  • Science is commonly grouped into four overarching fields, each with distinct scope, methods, and societal roles.

1. Natural Science (―“Hard Sciences”)

  • Studies the physical world through controlled experimentation.
  • Characterised by a high degree of control, objectivity, accuracy, and replicability.
Branches of Natural Science
  • Physical Science
    • Studies non-living components of nature.
    • Sub-branches: Physics (matter, energy, forces) and Chemistry (composition, structure, reactions of matter).
  • Earth & Space Science
    • Investigates the physical constitution of Earth and the wider universe (geology, meteorology, astronomy, cosmology).
    • In its broadest sense, often grouped under Physical Science.
  • Life Science (Biology as core)
    • Explores living organisms, their processes, evolution, and interactions.

2. Formal Science (―“A priori Sciences”)

  • Deals with formal theoretical systems arrived at through reasoning from self-evident propositions.
  • Knowledge is largely independent of direct empirical observation.
Branches of Formal Science
  • Mathematics
    • “Language of science.”
    • Science of numbers, operations, interrelations, combinations, & generalisation.
  • Statistics
    • Sub-discipline of mathematics that collects, analyses, interprets, and presents numerical data.
  • Logic (implicit in transcript)
    • Formal principles of valid reasoning and argument.
  • Computer Science
    • Interdisciplinary study of computation with goal of finding efficient computing methods.
  • Information Theory
    • Explores mathematical laws governing data as it is encoded, stored, transmitted, and received.

3. Social Science (―“Soft Sciences”)

  • Studies institutions, functioning of human society, and interpersonal relationships.
  • Deals with intangibles—behaviour, thoughts, feelings, interactions.
    • Less experimental control than Natural Sciences, yet still follows systematic methods.
Branches of Social Science
  • Psychology – Relationship between mental processes & behaviour.
  • Sociology – Institutions & social relationships.
  • Philosophy – Nature of knowledge, reality, meaning of life; supplies ethical & epistemological frameworks.
  • History – Systematic study of past via chronological records.
  • Anthropology – Biological & cultural evolution of humans across time & space.
  • Geography – Interactions among physical, biological, and cultural features of Earth’s surface.
  • Political Science – Analysis of power, governance, policy.
  • Economics (implied by goods & services) – Production, distribution, consumption.

4. Applied Science

  • Converts existing scientific knowledge into practical applications & technology.
Major Applied Disciplines & Real-World Impact
  • Medicine: Uses biology/biochemistry/biophysics for diagnosis, treatment, prevention.
  • Allied Health Sciences: Nursing, medical technology, pharmacy, physical therapy, radiologic technology—deliver patient care in conjunction with medicine.
  • Engineering: Application of scientific & mathematical principles to design, construct, and maintain structures, machines, devices, systems, and processes.
    • Fields include Civil, Mechanical, Chemical, Electrical, Electronics Engineering, etc.

Innovation & Technology

  • Innovation
    • Introducing new ideas, devices, methods that are more creative, effective, or efficient.
    • Arises from research & development, chance (serendipity), or even failure.
  • Technology
    • Any device, system, or method with practical application.
    • Can precede scientific explanation (example: steam engine predates thermodynamics).
    • Primary driver of economic growth and quality-of-life improvements.

Etymology of “Technology” & Working Definitions

  • Greek roots: Techne (art, skill, craft) + Logos (word, discourse) ⇒ “discourse about the way things are gained.”
  • Five common perspectives:
    1. Technological process – series of actions that yield a functional product.
    2. Objects – physical artefacts (tools, machines, software, etc.).
    3. Knowledge – know-how behind creating & using artefacts.
    4. A technology – a specific device or technique (e.g., GPS is a technology).
    5. Technological system – interconnected network of devices, people, and processes (e.g., power grid).

The Scientific Method (Gold Standard of Inquiry)

  • Empirical method used to investigate natural phenomena and derive explanations.
  • Iterative & self-correcting; conclusions often generate new questions.

Core Steps & Details

  1. Observation
    • Recognising phenomena with the senses; may stem from personal experience, reading, or earlier experiments.
    • Scientists cultivate a keen sense of observation.
  2. Asking Questions
    • Curiosity drives the entire scientific endeavour; well-formed questions frame hypotheses.
  3. Literature Search
    • Locate relevant, up-to-date studies to ensure novelty, avoid redundancy, and refine methodology.
  4. Hypothesis Formulation
    • An educated guess / tentative assumption predicting experimental outcome.
    • Must be testable (variables can be manipulated & results measured) and falsifiable (can be rejected if data contradict prediction).
  5. Experimentation
    • Systematic actions performed to test hypothesis.
    • Key variables:
      • Independent Variable – deliberately controlled/manipulated factor.
      • Dependent Variable – factor that responds to changes in independent variable.
  6. Data Analysis
    • Systematic processing of collected data using tables, graphs, mathematics, statistics, logic, & computation.
  7. Conclusion
    • Rational confirmation or rejection of hypothesis.
    • Results often lead to new observations & questions—cycle repeats.
Broader Importance
  • Enhances rigor, transparency, and reproducibility.
  • Underpins peer review and scientific consensus.

Relationship among Science, Technology, & Society (STS)

  • STS: Interdisciplinary study of how society, politics, & culture influence—and are influenced by—scientific research & technological innovation.
  • Mutual Shaping
    • Science provides knowledge that enables technology.
    • Technology supplies tools that extend scientific capability (e.g., telescopes, particle accelerators).
    • Society sets priorities (funding, ethics) and is transformed by resulting advances (medicine, communication).
  • Effects of S & T on Society
    • Improves quality of life (health, productivity, connectivity).
    • Creates new ethical dilemmas (gene editing, AI bias, data privacy).
    • Allows pursuit of broader societal concerns—ethics, aesthetics, justice—because basic needs are increasingly met.

21st-Century Inventions & Innovations (Illustrative List)

  • Social Media Platforms
    • First movers: Friendster (2002)(2002), MySpace (2003)(2003); later Facebook, Instagram.
    • Connect billions; hubs for information dissemination & activism.
  • Reusable (Multi-use) Rockets – SpaceX; first reuse (2017)(2017). Dramatically lowers cost of space travel.
  • Capsule Endoscopy – Pill-sized camera; first clinical use (2001)(2001). Non-invasive diagnostics for GI tract.
  • Blockchain Technology
    • Concept since 19911991, popularised 20082008. Decentralised, tamper-resistant ledgers.
    • Applications beyond finance: supply-chain integrity, secure cloud storage.
    • Philippine regulators: BSP (financial services), SEC (digital assets), DICT (public-service innovation).
  • Bitcoin & Cryptocurrencies
    • Introduced by Satoshi Nakamoto (2008)(2008). Peer-to-peer digital cash.
    • Disrupts traditional finance; transparency through public ledger.
    • Legal but regulated; users urged to choose licensed platforms and beware scams.
  • Mobile Operating Systems
    • iOS & Android dominate; enable rich app ecosystems and improved UX.
  • 3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing)
    • Rapid prototyping & custom production across food, healthcare (prosthetics), aerospace.
  • Gene Editing — CRISPR-Cas9
    • Discovered 20122012. Allows precise genomic modifications.
    • Potential cures for genetic disorders; improved crops; ongoing ethical debates.
  • Internet of Things (IoT)
    • Term coined 19991999. Network of smart devices + internet + data analytics.
    • Foundation for AI-driven automation and smart environments.

Ethical, Philosophical, and Practical Implications

  • Medical & Genetic Innovations: Raise questions of consent, equity, and “playing God.”
  • Data-Driven Technologies (IoT, Social Media, Blockchain): Privacy, surveillance, misinformation, digital divide.
  • Environmental Considerations: Reusable rockets reduce cost but still generate emissions; 3D printing may cut waste.
  • Economic Disruption: Automation & AI reshape labour markets; cryptocurrencies challenge monetary policy.

Key Takeaways & Study Tips

  • Understand distinctions and connections among Natural, Formal, Social, & Applied Sciences.
  • Memorise steps of Scientific Method and be able to apply to case studies.
  • Relate technological examples to underlying scientific principles (e.g., CRISPR ↔ molecular biology).
  • Consider STS lens: how social factors drive R&D priorities and how innovations reshape culture and policy.
  • Keep abreast of regulatory frameworks (BSP, SEC) when discussing emerging tech in essays or exams.