Transcribed Notes on the Construction of the Ghetto

The Construction of the Ghetto

Introduction to Racial Segregation

In the early 20th century, the problem of racial segregation in America was encapsulated in W. E. B. Du Bois's assertion that the central issue of the period was the "problem of the color line." In contemporary urban America, cities like Watts, Harlem, and Roxbury symbolize the stark separation of racial groups. Before 1900, there existed a time when African Americans and European Americans cohabited urban spaces more freely. However, by now, the long history of residential segregation between blacks and whites has become deeply embedded in the urban landscape, making it difficult to remember a time when such segregation did not exist.

Historical Context of Racial Integration

Contrary to the current perception, prior to 1900, blacks and whites frequently lived in close proximity in urban areas across the United States. In northern cities, such as Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, and Philadelphia, a significant but minority black population resided amongst whites in their neighborhoods. In southern cities, black domestic workers were found living near their white employers. Although some neighborhoods were predominantly black, many black residents found themselves in mixed communities.

The Shift Post-Civil War

Despite facing socioeconomic disadvantages after the Civil War, southern blacks lived without the extreme residential segregation that would emerge later. Most blacks shared social worlds and cultural spaces with whites, particularly in the North, where many respectable African American leaders formed relationships based on mutual trust and respect with white counterparts.

As time progressed, particularly from 1870 onward, the dynamics changed significantly. The majority of black Americans lived in the rural South, often constrained by sharecropping systems and systemic violence. However, the migration to urban centers accelerated, culminating in a dramatic transformation where by 1970, 80% of black Americans lived in urban areas — significantly affecting their social and economic standings.

Define the Ghetto

The term "ghetto" can refer to different realities; some perceive it simply as a black residential area, while others associate it with poverty and social problems. Here, the definition used refers strictly to the racial composition of a neighborhood, emphasizing that it is predominantly inhabited by one racial group. This context highlights that no racial or ethnic group other than African Americans has undergone this kind of sustained ghettoization in the United States.

The Formation Mechanisms of the Ghetto

The establishment of urban ghettos was not merely a phenomenon of social and economic change but was a product of a series of deliberate decisions made by white Americans to deny blacks access to housing markets. This spatial segregation was reinforced through collective actions and sometimes government endorsement, particularly from the end of the Civil War through to the Fair Housing Act of 1968. This timeline illustrates how systemic decisions fostered segregation and confined blacks to ghettos.

Before the Ghetto

Audience members are invited to imagine American cities at the conclusion of the Civil War—urban centers reflecting pre-industrial characteristics and lacking the segregated residential patterns that would emerge later. Urban infrastructure was limited; neighborhoods were defined less by race and more by economic factors.

Prior to the 1900s, blacks experienced residential patterns that were far removed from the strict segregation that would later define their urban existence. They occupied areas that may have been economically disadvantaged but shared neighborhoods with whites. The absence of structural segregation resulted in a lower index of dissimilarity and lower racial segregation scores between blacks and whites in northern U.S. cities, revealing an unexpected level of integration.

The Measuring of Segregation

An essential tool in analyzing segregation is the index of dissimilarity, which indicates the degree of segregation by measuring how evenly racial groups are dispersed within neighborhoods. Values above 60 indicate high segregation, while numbers under 30 are considered low. Historical data from the 1860s displayed moderate segregation levels compared to what would develop in following decades. Pre-1900 northern cities exhibited a dispersion of blacks and whites, with much less pronounced racial division than in later years.

Black-White Segregation: The Historical Data

Quantitative indices from various historical studies provide insights into the demographic patterns of segregation in both northern and southern cities across different eras, summarizing data indicating the various racial compositions and segregation indices. For instance, between 1860 and 1940, segregation indices reveal a stark rise in residential segregation by race, particularly as the black population intensified in urban areas following migration and industrialization. The 1910 census showed an average dissimilarity index of 59, a significant leap from the moderate levels recorded in 1860.

The Cultural Context of Segregation

As racial segregation intensified, social relations between blacks and whites shifted, particularly after the turn of the century. The realities for integrating black communities became increasingly complex. While demographic changes should have fostered interactions among different racial groups, they instead contributed to escalating fear and hostility from whites who associated black migration with declining neighborhood values. This period saw an increase in violence against blacks in integrated neighborhoods, leading to a withdrawal from racially mixed areas and reinforced boundaries of the ghetto.

Ghettoization Growth and Institutionalization

The early 20th century saw the construction of the black ghetto as a well-defined urban phenomenon. Structural changes due to industrialization led to a demand for low-wage labor and housing, thus paving the way for the establishment of predominantly black neighborhoods. These areas developed as a response to labor needs but also under the weight of social prejudices and economic imperatives.

Mechanisms of Racial Exclusion

Methods to maintain racial boundaries transitioned from overt violence to organized communal action, including restrictive neighborhood covenants, lending discrimination, and neighborhood associations. These groups would organize against black entry into particular areas while continuing to promote racial homogeneity as necessary for maintaining property values—a reflection of white America's prioritization of maintaining the color line in urban spaces.

The Role of Federal Policies

Following World War II, governmental policies substantially and systematically contributed to the institutionalization of segregation—most notably, through mechanisms that facilitated white suburbanization and exacerbated disinvestment in urban black areas. Federally supported housing policies shaped American cities' growth patterns, relegating African Americans to dependence on economically deprived neighborhoods. The legacy of these policies laid foundations for further societal issues.

Consequences of Segregation and Urban Riots

By the late 1960s, widespread riots evidenced the culmination of social frustrations residing in American ghettos. Root causes of these disturbances included the neglect of local conditions resulting from institutionalized segregation and discrimination. The blocking of government programs and policies addressing these inequalities by whites only heightened tensions, leading to significant social upheavals.

Recommendations After the Riots

Post-riot reflections suggested more proactive federal interventions to dismantle existing patterns of segregation through fair housing legislation and inclusive policies. The Commission's conclusions about housing, workforce integration, and education highlighted the persistent impediments to achieving racial equity in America, stretching back to the efforts to segregate even the most basic elements of urban living.

The Long-Term Effects of Segregation

The review of segregation indices post-1940 underscores a crucial reality: skilled and educated white populations continued to segregate economically, socially, and physically, leading to an ingrained racial isolation that impeded long-term progress for African Americans. The trajectory of segregation following WWII saw heightened concentrations of poverty and deteriorating living conditions in predominantly black neighborhoods, while upward mobility remained an elusive aspiration.