Early U.S. Republic: Washington, Adams & Jefferson (1789–1809)

Constitutional Experiment & Historical Context

  • Benjamin Franklin’s warning at the close of the Convention: “A republic – if you can keep it.”
    • Emphasized that the Constitution/Bill of Rights were an unprecedented gamble in large-scale self-government.
    • Lecturer contrasts earlier examples (Athens, Roman & Venetian republics, medieval England) with the new American model: no nation had ever attempted this particular mix of written constitution, federalism, separation of powers and popular sovereignty.

Federalists in Power (1789–1801)

George Washington’s Presidency (1789–1797)

  • Election mechanics
    • 1st election held 02/1789; only 11 cooperating states (NC & RI absent).
    • Original constitutional rule: highest electoral vote total → President; second highest → Vice-President. No party “tickets.”
    • Washington received every electoral vote twice – still unique. (Later electors consciously withheld single votes from other popular presidents to keep Washington’s record intact.)
  • Personal image & symbolism
    • Height 6\,ft\,3\,in; viewed as “indispensable man.”
    • Preferred the title “Mr. President,” rejecting suggested honorifics (“His High Mightiness,” etc.).
    • Disliked handshakes, wanted a stately carriage with livery, liked designing uniforms (nick-named the “Calvin Klein” of his era).
    • Superb horseman; favorite mount Nelson used for public entrances.
    • Talents & quirks: champion dancer (minuet), continual redesign of Mount Vernon, avid gambler, interior-decorator instincts.
    • Produced 11{,}000 gallons of whiskey at Mount Vernon in 1798 – largest U.S. distiller.
  • Inauguration precedents (Federal Hall, NYC, 04/30/1789)
    • VP John Adams sworn first (no Chief Justice yet; Chancellor Robert Livingston officiated).
    • Washington arrived late, visibly emotional; soft-voiced oath on balcony without amplification.
    • Added two enduring customs:
    • Placed hand on Bible & kissed it.
    • Spoke the words “So help me God.”
  • Cabinet creation & talents
    • Alexander Hamilton (Treasury) – “greatest Sec. of Treasury” per lecturer.
    • Thomas Jefferson (State).
    • Henry Knox (War) – no separate Navy Dept yet; Marines soon; Air Force impossible (no planes).
    • Edmund Randolph (Attorney-General; distinguished VA family).
  • Hamilton’s economic program
    • Funding & assumption of combined federal + state Revolutionary debt to win confidence of merchants/creditors.
    • Report on Manufactures: blueprint for an industrial economy.
    • Creation of Bank of the United States – modeled on Bank of England; issued national currency & made loans.
    • Objection: significant foreign ownership (esp. British).
    • Revenue sources:
    • Sale of western public lands at \$1 per acre.
    • Excise (“sin”) taxes – chiefly on distilled liquor (tobacco untouched).
    • No income tax until 20^{th}-century constitutional amendment.
    • Political bargain: Jefferson & Madison supported assumption plan in exchange for new permanent capital between Maryland & Virginia → Washington, D.C. (site personally surveyed by the President; aka “Foggy Bottom”).
  • New states under Washington
    • Vermont 1791 (one of four former independent republics; others later: Texas, California, Hawaii).
    • Kentucky 1792.
    • Tennessee 1796 – first state west of the Appalachians.
  • Rise of the first party system
    • Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans (a.k.a. Jeffersonians).
    • Federalists: strong central gov’t, commerce & manufacturing vision, pro-British, power base in New England/Atlantic seaboard; supporters = merchants, lawyers, urban elites.
    • Democratic-Republicans: states’ rights (though pro-Constitution), agrarian “empire of liberty,” pro-French, base in South, West & frontier; supporters = planters, small farmers, urban workers.
  • Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
    • PA frontier farmers converted surplus grain to whiskey; resisted excise tax shouting old slogan “No taxation without representation.”
    • Washington personally led 13{,}000 troops (larger than any Revolutionary command); opposition evaporated leaving 3 rebels in custody.
    • Demonstrated that Congress-approved federal taxes would be enforced – key test of new Constitution.
  • Farewell Address (1796)
    • Published in newspaper (possibly drafted by Madison).
    • Advised:
    • Avoid permanent alliances, yet NOT outright isolation; stay engaged without entanglements.
    • Two terms sufficient for him – offered as personal example, not constitutional rule.
    • Custom held until FDR’s third election (1940); formalized by 22^{nd} Amendment (1951).

John Adams’ Presidency (1797–1801)

  • Election of 1796
    • Adams (Federalist) most electoral votes → President; Jefferson (Dem-Rep) second → VP, creating awkward mixed-party executive.
  • Foreign crisis – XYZ Affair & Quasi-War (1797–1800)
    • French privateers seized U.S. ships; diplomats (code-named X, Y, Z) demanded bribes.
    • Slogan: “Millions for defense, not 1\cent for tribute.”
    • Led to undeclared naval fighting; U.S. began building navy (eventual 7 warships).
    • Napoleon (coup of 11/1799) later sought reconciliation, paving way for Louisiana sale.
  • Domestic crisis – Alien & Sedition Acts (1798)
    • Alien Acts: allowed deportation or detention of “dangerous” foreigners (statute later cited by modern administrations).
    • Sedition Act: criminalized “false, scandalous, malicious” criticism of President/Congress; 10 editors jailed; cartoons & jokes illegal.
    • Widely viewed as violation of First Amendment.
  • Virginia & Kentucky Resolutions (1798–99)
    • Authored secretly by Jefferson & Madison.
    • Doctrine of nullification: states entered Union voluntarily → may declare federal laws unconstitutional & refuse enforcement.
    • Precedent cited later: Hartford Convention (War of 1812), SC Nullification Crisis, Confederate secession, Montana 55 mph dispute (1970s).
  • Judiciary & the “Midnight Judges”
    • Adams filled courts with Federalists before leaving office.
    • Appointed cousin John Marshall Chief Justice – established judicial review (power not explicit in Constitution; asserted in Marbury v. Madison 1803).

“Revolution of 1800” – Election & Peaceful Transfer

  • Electoral tie: Thomas Jefferson & Aaron Burr (both Democratic-Republicans) each scored 73 electoral votes.
  • House of Representatives (1 vote per state) deadlocked through 36 ballots.
  • Alexander Hamilton, detesting Burr, convinced enough Federalists to switch to Jefferson.
  • Established precedent of peaceful power shift; led to 12^{th} Amendment (1804) creating separate ballots for President & VP.
  • Seeds of Hamilton-Burr hatred → duel (1804).

Thomas Jefferson’s Presidency (1801–1809) – Early Highlights

  • Succession design: James Madison (Sec. of State) groomed as heir;