AICE Marine Review Sheet Unit 1: Water

1.1.1 Changes of State in Water

• Kinetic Particle Theory: States that all matter is composed of particles in constant motion.
  • Solids:
  • Particles tightly packed.
  • Particles vibrate adjacent to each other.
  • Lowest energy state.
  • Liquids:
  • Particles closely packed, but can slide past each other.
  • More energy than solids.
  • Gases:
  • Particles are independent and move freely.
  • Bump into each other.
  • Highest energy of the three states of matter.

1.1.2 Structure of the Atom

• Composition of Atoms: Every atom contains three subatomic particles:
  • Protons: Positively charged particles located within the nucleus.
  • Neutrons: Neutral particles also located in the nucleus.
  • Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus in shells.

1.1.3 Composition of Seawater

• Definition: Seawater is a mixture of different elements and compounds.
• Common Components:
  • Ions: Chloride, Sodium, Sulfate, Magnesium, Calcium, and Potassium.
  • Nutrients and other dissolved substances.

1.1.4 Covalent Bonding in a Water Molecule

• Description of Covalent Bonding:
  • Electrons are shared equally between the participating atoms.
  • Each Hydrogen atom shares one electron with Oxygen, while Oxygen shares two electrons (one with each Hydrogen) to complete their outer shells.
• Outcome: This sharing leads to the formation of the water molecule (H₂O).

1.1.5 Identification of Covalent Molecules

• Key Covalent Molecules:
  • Water: H₂O
  • Carbon Dioxide: CO₂
  • Oxygen Gas: O₂
  • Sulfur Dioxide: SO₂
  • Glucose: C₆H₁₂O₆

1.1.6 Ionic Bonding in Sodium Chloride

• Ionic Bond Definition:
  • An ionic bond involves the unequal sharing of valence electrons between atoms.
  • This results in the formation of ions (charged particles).
• Example: Sodium (Na) loses an electron (becomes Na⁺) and Chlorine (Cl) gains that electron (becomes Cl⁻).
• Attraction: The electrostatic attraction between these oppositely charged ions forms the ionic bond.

1.1.7 Identification of Ionic Substances

• Common Ionic Substances:
  • Sodium Chloride (Table Salt): NaCl
  • Calcium Carbonate: CaCO₃

1.1.8 Chemical Names and Formulas of Salts in Seawater

• Salts in Seawater:
  • Sodium Chloride: NaCl
  • Magnesium Sulfate: MgSO₄
  • Calcium Carbonate: CaCO₃

1.1.9 Hydrogen Bonds in Water

• Definition of Hydrogen Bonds:
  • A hydrogen bond is a weak bond that occurs between water molecules containing hydrogen and an electronegative atom like oxygen or nitrogen.
• Electrostatic Forces:
  • Slightly positive hydrogen ions attract slightly negative ions from adjacent molecules, leading to cohesion between water molecules.
  • Properties: These bonds are significant, contributing to the unique properties of water.

1.1.10 Effects of Hydrogen Bonding on Water Properties

• Solvent Action:
  • Water's partial charge enables it to dissolve many ionic and polar substances, making it a universal solvent.
• Density:
  • Water's density is affected by hydrogen bonds forming a crystalline structure when it freezes, leading to ice being less dense than liquid water.
• Specific Heat Capacity:
  • Water has a high specific heat capacity, facilitating temperature stability within the environment, acting as a temperature buffer for the planet.

1.2.1 Definitions of Solute, Solvent, Solution, and Solubility

• Solute: A substance that dissolves in the solvent.
• Solvent: The substance that dissolves the solute.
• Solution: The mixture of solute and solvent.
• Solubility: The capacity of a solute to dissolve in a solvent.

1.2.2 Soluble Salts Dissolving in Water

• Process:
  • Ionic compounds like sodium chloride dissolve in water due to the attraction between water molecules and the ions.
  • Na⁺ is surrounded by the negative part of water (oxygen), and Cl⁻ is surrounded by the positive part of water (hydrogen).

1.2.3 Effect of Water Temperature on Salt Solubility

• Relationship: An increase in water temperature raises the solubility rate of salts in seawater.

1.2.4 Definition of Salinity

• Salinity:
  • A measure of dissolved salts in ocean water, expressed in parts per thousand (ppt) or 0/00.

1.2.5 Ice Formation and Salinity Effects

• Freezing Point Effect:
  • Adding salt to water lowers its freezing point.

1.2.6 Effects of Surface Runoff, Precipitation, and Evaporation on Salinity

• Surface Runoff: Excess freshwater from land can dilute seawater and lower salinity.
• Precipitation: Rain adds freshwater, also reducing salinity.
• Evaporation: Increases salinity as freshwater evaporates, leaving salts behind.

1.2.7 pH Scale Description

• pH Scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration. Increasing concentration indicates acidity, while decreasing indicates alkalinity.
  • Acidic: pH < 7
  • Neutral: pH = 7
  • Alkaline: pH > 7

1.2.8 Measuring pH of Water Samples

• Techniques: Use litmus indicators, Universal Indicators, and pH probes to determine pH levels.

1.2.9 Oxygen's Low Solubility in Water

• Solubility of Oxygen: Oxygen has a low solubility in seawater, affecting marine organisms dependent on dissolved oxygen.

1.2.10 Factors Impacting Gas Solubility in Water

• Gas Solubility: Varies by gas type and is influenced by temperature, pressure, and salinity.
  • Gas Types:
  • Carbon Dioxide: Highly soluble.
  • Oxygen and Nitrogen: Low solubility.
• Key Relationships:
  • Temperature: Colder water holds more gas.
  • Atmospheric Pressure: Higher pressure increases solubility.
  • Depth: Increased water pressure with depth enhances solubility.
  • Salinity: Higher salinity lowers gas solubility.

1.3.1 Factors Affecting Water Density

• Water Temperature: Inversely related to density; as temperature decreases, density increases.
• Water Pressure: Directly correlated; as pressure increases, density increases.
• Salinity: Directly correlated; as salinity increases, density increases.

1.3.2 Density Formula

• Formula:
  • Density = Mass ÷ Volume
  • Units: kg/m³

1.3.3 Density of Ice vs. Seawater

• Density Comparison: Ice's lower density allows it to float on liquid water due to its crystalline structure upon freezing.

1.3.4 Importance of Floating Ice

• Thermal Insulator: Ice acts as a barrier, preventing heat loss from seawater.
• Habitat: Provides habitat for penguins, serves as hunting grounds for polar bears, and supports ice algae growth beneath the ice surface.

1.3.5 Temperature and Salinity Gradients in Water Columns

• Layers Defined:
  • Surface Layer: Warm, less dense water.
  • Thermocline/Halocline: Rapid changes in temperature and salinity leading to increased density.
  • Deep Ocean Water: Coldest and most uniform salinity.
• Mixing of Layers:
  • Caused by strong winds, wave action, currents, upwellings, and downwellings.

2.1.1 Structure of the Earth

• Crust: Outermost layer.
  • Continental Crust: Thicker and less dense.
  • Oceanic Crust: Denser, basaltic layer.
• Mantle: Region of molten rock beneath the crust.
• Core: Dense, central region of the Earth.

2.1.2 Theory of Plate Tectonics

• Definition: Lithosphere divided into plates moving on the asthenosphere.
• Evidence:
  • Geological matching of rock formations.
  • Fossil distribution across continents.
  • Paleomagnetic stripes on the ocean floor.
  • Jigsaw fit of continents (e.g., Africa and South America).

2.1.3 Types of Plate Boundaries

• Convergent: Plates move towards each other.
• Divergent: Plates move away from each other.
• Transform: Plates slide past each other.

2.1.4 Tectonic Processes and Features

• Ocean Trenches: Formed at convergent boundaries via subduction.
• Mid-Ocean Ridges: Formed at divergent boundaries; upward magma movement.
• Hydrothermal Vents: Result from water seepage into ocean floor cracks, heated and mineral-rich.
• Abyssal Plains: Flat ocean floor regions; formed by sediment accumulation.
• Volcanoes: Result from crust thinning at boundaries, erupting magma.
• Earthquakes: Occur due to plate tension release.
• Tsunamis: Deep water waves created by seismic activity.

2.1.5 Hydrothermal Vents

• Characteristics:
  • Under pressure: 20,265 kPa
  • Hot: Above 350°C
  • Nutrient-rich: Minerals dissolve from the rocks.

2.1.6 Detection of Hydrothermal Vent Plumes

• Detection: High temperature and toxic composition detectable at a distance.

2.1.7 Formation of Chimneys at Hydrothermal Vents

• Process:
  • Cold water seeps in, heats, and dissolves minerals.
  • Ejected superheated water meets cold sea water causing minerals to precipitate, forming chimneys.

2.2.1 Weathering vs. Erosion

• Weathering: Breakdown of rocks via physical, chemical, or biological processes.
• Erosion: Movement of weathered material from one location to another.

2.2.2 Types of Weathering

• Chemical Weathering: Changes chemical composition; e.g. limestone dissolution by acid rain.
• Physical Weathering: Breaks rocks without altering composition; e.g., ice wedging.
• Organic Weathering: Biological breakdown; e.g. tree roots.

2.2.3 Types of Erosion

• Ice Erosion: Glaciers crush and transport rocks.
• Water Erosion: Water carries sediments away via runoff or river flow.
• Wind Erosion: Wind transports sand and sediment.
• Gravity Erosion: Collapse of materials due to gravitational pull.

2.2.4 Sedimentation Process

• Definition: Deposition of suspended particles after erosion.

2.2.5 Effects of Water Flow Speed and Particle Size on Sedimentation

• Speed Relation: Faster water can transport larger particles; slower water causes larger particles to settle.

2.2.6 Definition of Littoral Zone

• Littoral Zone: Area of shoreline between highest/lowest tidal marks.

2.2.7 Examples of Littoral Zones

• Types:
  • Rocky shores
  • Sandy shores
  • Muddy shores
  • Estuaries
  • Deltas

2.2.8 Influence of Weathering, Erosion, and Sedimentation on Shore Morphology

• Rocky Shores: Formed from high-energy wave action leading to erosion of softer rocks.
• Sandy Shores: Formed from softer, less resistant rocks in lower energy areas allowing sedimentation to dominate.
• Muddy Shores: Develop in sheltered areas with low-energy allowing fine sediments to deposit.

2.3.1 Factors Affecting Tide Formation

• Gravitational Effects: Moon and sun’s gravity affects water levels, leading to high and low tides.
• Coastal Geomorphology: Shoreline shape can amplify tidal effects.

2.3.2 Spring and Neap Tides

• Spring Tides: Occur when sun and moon are aligned; have greatest tidal range.
• Neap Tides: Occur when sun and moon are at right angles; have smallest tidal range.

2.3.4 Factors Affecting Ocean Currents

• Drivers:
  • Wind: Shape surface currents; strong winds create more notable currents.
  • Coriolis Effect: Deflects currents right in the northern hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere.
  • Temperature and Density: Influence deep ocean current flows.

2.3.5 Global Ocean Conveyor Belt

• Thermohaline Circulation: Drive deep ocean currents based on temperature and salinity differences.
• Implementation:
  • Cold water at poles sinks, creating a current that circulates nutrients globally.

2.3.6 El Niño and La Niña Events

• Normal Conditions: Cold, nutrient-rich water flows along Peru’s coast, nurturing high marine productivity.
• El Niño: Occurs when prevailing winds weaken, causing warm water to spread, disrupts ecosystems and economy.
• La Niña: Follow-up phase characterized by strengthened trade winds, increases nutrient supply and enhances marine life.

3.1.1 Symbiotic Relationships

• Mutualism: Both organisms benefit (e.g., boxer crabs and anemones).
• Commensalism: One benefits while the other is unaffected (e.g., remora fish and manta rays).
• Parasitism: One benefits at the expense of the other (e.g., sea lice on salmon).

3.1.2 Copepods and Marine Fish

• Copepods: Tiny crustaceans act as parasites, feeding on fish tissues, which weakens them.

3.1.3 Manta Ray and Remora Fish Relationship

• Effect: Remora fish live on manta rays, gaining protection and nutrients without harming the expansive ray.

3.1.4 Boxer Crabs and Anemones Relationship

• Effect: Boxer crabs utilize anemones for protection against predators while providing mobility and food access to the anemone.

3.2.1 Feeding Relationships Terminology

• Consumer: Organisms feed on others to gain energy.
• Producers: Organisms that convert light or chemical energy into food (e.g., phytoplankton).
• Detritivore: Breaks down dead material (e.g., bacteria).
• Decomposer: Recyle nutrients back into ecosystems.

3.2.2 Feeding Relationships and Ecosystem Dynamics

• Food Chains: Linear pathway showing nutrient transfer.
• Food Webs: Complex interlocking feeding relationships.
• Trophic Levels: Positions of organisms in feeding hierarchies.

3.2.3 Producers in Marine Environments

• Types:
  • Photoautotrophs: Use photosynthesis.
  • Chemoautotrophs: Use chemical energy to create food.

3.2.4 Photosynthesis

• Process: Captures sunlight and converts carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
  • Equation:
    $ext{Carbon Dioxide} + ext{Water} + ext{light} <br /> ightarrow ext{Glucose} + ext{Oxygen}$

3.2.6 Glucose Production and Biomass

• Use of Glucose: Engaged in cellular respiration for energy and growth; net primary production reflects energy reserved for growth.

3.2.7 Use of Glucose in Respiration

• Cellular Respiration: Convert glucose to energy, producing carbon dioxide and water.
  • Equation:
    $ext{Glucose} + ext{Oxygen} <br /> ightarrow ext{Carbon Dioxide} + ext{Water}$

3.2.8 Productivity Definition

• Definition: Rate of biomass production; higher productivity indicates more energy available in the ecosystem.

3.2.9 Energy Loss in Food Chains

• Energy Transfer: Typically, only 10% of energy transfers between trophic levels due to metabolic losses.
• Calculation Example: Energy loss between levels determined by comparing new and old levels.

3.2.10 Pyramids of Energy, Numbers, and Biomass

• Descriptive Diagrams: Illustrate the energy at each trophic level, showing relationships and potential losses.

3.3.1 Definition of Nutrients in Marine Ecosystems

• Nutrients Definition: Substances required for organism growth and metabolism.

3.3.2 Types of Nutrients

• Gases: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrogen (N₂), and oxygen (O₂).
• Ions: Magnesium (Mg²⁺), carbonate (CO₃²⁻), phosphate (PO₄³⁻), nitrate (NO₃⁻).
• Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

3.3.3 Elements of Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates: Composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O).
• Lipids: Composed of C, H, O, Phosphorus (P), Nitrogen (N).
• Proteins: Composed of C, H, O, Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S).

3.3.4 Formation of Large Molecules from Small Ones

• Summary of Building Blocks: Largest molecules formed from smaller units via polymerization.

3.3.5 Nutrients and Their Biological Roles

• Nutritional Importance:
  • Nitrogen: Essential for proteins/DNA synthesis.
  • Carbon: Fundamental for organic compounds.
  • Magnesium: Integral for chlorophyll formation.
  • Calcium: Necessary for forming shells/bones.
  • Phosphorus: Required for DNA synthesis.

3.3.6 Nutrient Reservoirs in Oceans

• Natural Reservoir: Ongoing cycles of nutrients dissolved in oceans.

3.3.7 Processes Replenishing Nutrient Reservoirs

• Key Processes:
  • Upwelling: Deep waters bring nutrients to the surface.
  • Runoff: Transfers nutrients from land to oceans.
  • Dissolving Gases: Atmospheric nitrogen and CO₂ enter waters.
  • Tectonic Activity: Hydrothermal vents release minerals.

3.3.8 Nutrient Removal from Reservoirs

• Uptake: Organisms uptake dissolved nutrients for growth/photosynthesis.

3.3.9 Nutrient Depletion in Ecosystems

• Limitations: Nutrient availability critically influences ecosystem productivity.

3.3.10 Carbon Cycle Overview

• Processes:
  • Combustion: Releases CO₂.
  • Photosynthesis: Absorbs CO₂ to produce organic matter.
  • Respiration: Produces CO₂ by organisms.
  • Decomposition: Returns carbon to the system.
  • Fossil Fuel Formation: Carbon sediments transform over time.
  • Weathering: Releases carbon from rocks back to the oceans.

4.1.1 Taxonomic Hierarchy of Species Classification

• Hierarchy: Domain → Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species.

4.1.2 Binomial Nomenclature System

• Definition: Two-word naming system (Genus species); first letter capitalized, italicized.

4.1.3 Dichotomous Keys Usage

• Identification Tool: Guides through a series of questions to classify organisms.

4.1.4 Observations Using Keys

• Biological Drawing: Skills for precise illustrations and classifications.

4.2.1 Plankton Definition

• Definition: Free-floating microscopic organisms that are largely motile.

4.2.2 Phytoplankton as Producers

• Types: Microscopic algae that photosynthesize and absorb environmental nutrients.
• Categories: Picoplankton, Nanoplankton, Microplankton.

4.2.3 Zooplankton Characteristics

• Definition: Planktonic consumers; include juvenile organisms like fish larvae and copepods.

4.2.4 Echinoderm Features

• General Features: Marine invertebrates, pentaradial symmetry, and tube feet for movement.

4.2.5 Importance of Echinoderms

• Ecological Importance: Support biodiversity, critical for coral and kelp ecosystems.
• Economic Importance: Harvest for food and scientific research.

4.2.6 Crustacean Characteristics

• Key Features: Hard exoskeleton, segmentation, jointed legs, and gill structures.

4.2.7 Ecological Importance of Crustaceans

• Contributions: Scavenging and recycling nutrients, fundamental to dietary chains.

4.2.8 Bony Fish Features

• Characteristics: Bony skeleton, operculum covering gills, swim bladder aiding buoyancy.

4.2.9 Economic Role of Bony Fish

• Harvesting Importance: Essential for nutrition and industry; their byproducts find diverse applications.

4.2.10 Cartilaginous Fish Characteristics

• Composition: Skeleton made of cartilage, denser structure than bony fish.

4.2.11 Importance of Cartilaginous Fish

• Economic and Ecological Role: Black marking in fishing industries; balance ecosystems as apex predators.

4.2.12 Characteristics of Chordates

• Definition: Shared traits in bony and cartilaginous fish; notochord, dorsal nerve tube, etc.

4.2.13 Macroalga Features

• Structuring: Holdfast, stipe, gas bladder for buoyancy, blades for surface area.

4.2.14 Importance of Macroalgae

• Roles: Nutrient cycling, habitats for species, economic uses as food and products.

4.2.15 Marine Plant Features

• Components: Rhizomes, roots for stability, flowers and leaves for reproduction.

4.2.16 Importance of Marine Plants

• Ecosystem Roles: Nutrient supply, nursery habitats, coastal protection.

4.3.1 Biodiversity Categories

• Three Levels: Genetic, species, and ecological diversity.

4.3.2 Importance of Marine Biodiversity

• Ecosystem Services: Stability in interactions, climate control, food supply, medical sources.

4.4.1 Ecosystem Definitions

• Ecosystem Terms: Habitat, niche, species, population, community explained with marine examples.

4.4.2 Abiotic vs. Biotic Factors

• Definitions: Specify factors affecting marine ecosystems.

4.4.3 Estimation of Population Size

• Mark-Release-Recapture Method: For assessing mobile species populations.

4.4.4 Lincoln Index Application

• Formula: Estimation method with defined parameters for sampling.

4.4.5 Sampling Methods

• Types: Random vs. systematic; advantages and disadvantages.

4.4.6 Investigating Distribution and Abundance

• Techniques: Frame quadrats, line transects for assessing species distribution ethically.

4.4.7 Simpson’s Index of Diversity

• Calculation: Analyzing species diversity using the formula provided.

4.4.8 Spearman’s Rank Correlation **

• Analysis Method: Assess relationships between species distribution and environmental factors.

5.1.1 Identification of the World’s Oceans

• The five oceans are Arctic, Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Southern.

5.1.2 Open Ocean Zone Identification

• Zones: Epipelagic, Mesopelagic, Bathypelagic, Abyssopelagic, and Benthic defined by light penetration.

5.1.3 Importance of Oceans & Atmosphere Interaction

• Roles as carbon sinks, oxygen sources, temperature modulation, and climate regulation.

5.1.4 Oceanic Zones by Temperature

• Identifying regions as polar, temperate, or tropical based on characteristics.

5.2.1 Conditions for Coral Reef Formation

• Temperature, clear water, suitable depth, and solid substrates crucial for coral health.

5.2.2 Types of Tropical Coral Reefs

• Types: Fringing, barrier, patch, atoll, defined by their proximity to land.

5.2.3 Coral Physiology Descriptions

• Structured colonies of polyps engaging in mutualism with zooxanthellae.

5.2.4 Types of Coral

• Distinction between hard (hermatypic) and soft (ahermatypic) corals based on calcification.

5.2.5 Structure of Coral Polyps

• Characterized by tentacles, nematocysts, mouth, coils of theca, and basal plates.

5.2.6 Coral Nutrition Acquisition

• Sources including detritus and nutrients from symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae).

5.2.7 Coral Reefs Importance

• Contributions to tourism, food, coastal protection, medicines, and biodiversity.

5.2.8 Causes of Reef Erosion

• Subject to environmental changes such as pH, temperature, and sedimentation effects.

5.2.9 Artificial Reefs Utilization

• Benefits providing ecosystem support similar to natural reefs.

5.3.1 Rocky Shore Ecosystem Zonation

• Defined by zones including splash, upper, middle, and lower shores highlighting abiotic changes.

5.3.2 Interaction of Factors in Rocky Shores

• Analyzing how abiotic and biotic parameters shape organism distribution and abundance in rocky zones.

5.3.3 Organism Adaptations to Rocky Shores

• Identification of organism features enabling survival in fluctuating conditions.

5.4.1 Sandy Shore Ecosystem Description

• Defined by unstable substrate and low biodiversity challenges.

5.4.2 Sandy Shore Factors Impacting Biodiversity

• Discusses influences leading to lower species numbers and biodiversity issues.

5.4.4 Organism Adaptations on Sandy Shores

• Strategies used by organisms to endure sandy shore conditions.

5.5.1 Mangrove Forest Characteristics

• Defined features of mangrove forests within brackish tidal zones.

5.5.2 Conditions for Mangrove Growth

• Necessary requirements for establishment include salinity and tidal range.

5.5.3 Adaptations of Red Mangrove Trees

• Root systems and reproductive strategies adapting to mangrove environments.

5.5.4 Ecological Importance of Mangrove Forests

• Serving as nurseries, stabilizing coastlines and their role in nutrient cycling.

5.5.5 Importance of Mangrove Forests to Economics

• Discussion of how they support fishing, tourism, local timber, and biodiversity.

5.5.6 Threats to Mangrove Ecosystems

• Issues facing mangroves covering climate change-induced and anthropogenic pressures.

Practical Skills Overview

• Covers scientific methodology, experimental design, interpretation of data, and hypothesis formulation.
• Emphasizes accuracy and reproducibility in scientific inquiries.