aps exam review

%%Anthropology%%

  1. Who is Franz Boas and his contribution to anthropology?

   

  1. known as the “father of american anthropology” and developed the theory of cultural relativism which states that an anthropologist cannot generalize when comparing two different cultures because they each have their own values and beliefs.

    1. What did Margret Mead say about the Nature-Nurture Debate?

  2. discovered that all cultures share commonalities

  3. argued that NATURE & NURTURE have profound impacts on human civilization and the existence of culture

    1. Who is Edward Sapir and Noam Chomsky?

  4. edward sapir was an american anthropologist and one of the founders of linguistic anthropology

  5. noam chomsky “the founder of modern linguistics”

    1. Chomsky’s Theory of Language.

  6. theory of universal grammar: suggests that children’s ability to learn language is instinctive (nature), noting children around the world develop language at the same time and rate as other children

      1. there is an optimal age to learning language (3-10)

 2. children do not need a trigger to begin **language acquisition, it happens on its own**

 3. they will still **grasp the language in the same manner and speak the same way**
  1. Explain what archeologists study. Know terms associated- Excavating, artifacts, features.
  • archeology - study of past cultures through the excavation sites and the reconstruction and analysis of artifacts
  • excavating - method used to extract artifacts out of the ground
  • artifacts - portable, man-made remains left by humans
  • features - non-movable elements from an archeological site (pathways, trash pits, and house foundations)
  1. Be able to speak on Charles Darwin, natural selection, survival of the fittest, sexual selection, domestic animal breeding, adaption, .
  • charles darwin - introduced the concept of natural selection after observing variations in birds, correlates to human evolution
  • natural selection - nature’s process which acts to save and keep any useful variations a species may have
  • survival of the fittest - states that the strongest of a species survives
  • sexual selection - through mate selection, desired traits can be retained over others less desired
  • domestic animal breeding - selecting specific dogs to breed to produce dramatic changes
  • adaption - heritable traits that helps survival and reproduction in the environment
  1. 3 principles of natural selection
  • variation - the same parents have different looking children
  • heritability - passing on traits to offspring through DNA
  • environmental fitness - individuals who are better adapted to their environment will produce more offspring and survive
  1. Paleoanthropology and primatology.
  • paleoanthropology - study of human evolution through fossil remains
  • primatology - the study of living primate species (such as the great apes)
  1. Know different human ancestors (hominids)
  • australopithecus afarensis - 2-3 million years ago, first to bipedalism
  • homo habilis - 1.8-2 million years, first tools
  • homo erectus - 400,000 - 1.9 million years, discovery of fire and hunting in groups, meat diet similar to homo sapiens
  • neanderthals - 38k - 150k years, first burials and specialized tools
  • homo sapiens - 120k - present years, discovery of art, language, tools made of bones and horns, most adaptable
  1. Lucy, Selam, Toumai, Turkana Boy and their shared characteristics with modern humans (homo sapiens)
  • lucy - australopithecus found in 1974 by donald johnson, 3.2 million year old female skeleton in ethiopia, bipedal
  • selam - australopithecus found in 2006 by zeray aleseyed, 3.3 million year old female fossil, 3 year old, ape features and bipedal
  • toumai - 6-7 million year old fossil, first human ancestor, sahelthropus tchudonsis
  • turkana boy - homo erectus, found in 1984 by richard leaky, nearly complete skeleton, 5’3, small brain compared to humans but larger than chimps, hunted, tools, human civilization
  1. Bipedalism
  • the ability to walk on two feet and allowed homonids to free up their hands for other uses
  1. Who is Jane Goodall and what did she discover in her research of Chimps?
  • english primatologist and anthropologist, lifelong study of chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania, East Africa in 1960, became world renowned figure in anthro and leader in species conservation1
  • discover- make and use tools, hunt small monkeys for meat, and form raiding parties to kill members of neighbouring chimpanzee troupes \n

^^Psychology^^

  1. Explain the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

    intrinsic: the motivation to do something because it brings you personal joy ex) reading

    extrinsic: the motivation to do something to get a reward ex) doing chores for allowance

  1. Explain the motivation theories: instinct, drive-reduction, incentive, optimal arousal, humanistic,  self-determination

    instinct theory: people are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are evolutionarily programmed to do so. e.g. a mother’s desire to soothe a crying child

    drive-reduction theory: motivated to take certain actions in order to reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs. e.g. you might be motivated to drink a glass of water in order to reduce the internal state of thirst.

    incentive theory: motivated to do things because of external (extrinsic) rewards. e.g. you might be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward of being paid.

    optimal arousal theory: people take certain actions to either decrease or increase levels of arousal. e.g. when arousal levels get too low, a person might watch an exciting movie or go for a jog or when arousal levels get too high, a person might practice yoga or reading a book.

    humanistic theory: based on Abraham Maslow's “Hierarchy of Needs” which suggests different motivations exist at different levels. once these needs have been met, we are motivated by the need for self-actualization (the desire to fulfill our individual potential)

    self-determination theory: suggests that people are motivated by internal (intrinsic) sources of motivation, such as a need to gain knowledge and experience personal growth.

  1. Who is Sigmund Freud? Clearly define and describe the role of the id, ego and superego.

     1. he was a doctor who specialized in disorders of the brain and nervous system 2. claimed that people were unaware of their thoughts because those thoughts came from the unconscious mind 3. ego: the conscious and rational part of our mind. human decision-making occurs here, often influenced by the id and superego. 4. id: part of our unconscious mind. The id seeks to bring us pleasure and avoid pain. 5. superego: part of both the unconscious and conscious mind. instructing us to do what is morally correct.

  1. Define: defense mechanisms

    unconscious mental processes used to protect the ego against undesirable thoughts and feelings

  1. Explain and give an example for the following defense mechanisms: denial, displacement, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, repression

    denial: refusing to believe reality by acting as if the event never happened ex) the loss of a loved one

    displacement: showing emotion towards a someone or something that is unrelated to the situation ex) an alcoholic gets in a car accident when driving drunk, then blames it on their friends for not taking their keys away

    rationalization: making up explanations for inappropriate behaviour so it seems acceptable ex) saying the whole class cheated on a test too

    reaction formation: behaving opposite to your actual feelings to defend unacceptable behaviour ex) when your mean to friends, but in reality, it’s the opposite and you actually like them

    regression: acting immature to relieve anxiety when faced with uncomfortable situations ex) a child who knows how to walk starts to crawl around because their baby brother is getting attention for crawling

    repression: when a person keeps their emotions and feelings to themselves rather than verbalizing them ex) not talking about trauma

  1. Define sleep deprivation, dreams, daydreams, lucid dreams, nightmares, recurring dreams
    • sleep deprivation: refers to suffering from a lack of sleep
    • dreams: stories and images our mind creates while we sleep

      daydreams: state of consciousness that exists in between sleep and waking.

      lucid dreams: when you become conscious of your dreams

      nightmares: an unsettling dream that leaves you fearful and uneasy when you wake

      recurring dreams: dreams that have a similar plot or theme each time

  1. Define: personality, heredity (nature), environment (nurture)

    • personality: a pattern of thinking, feeling and behaving that is unique to an individual
    • nature: refers to genes and hereditary factors that influence us and our behaviour ex) eye colour, hair colour
    • nurture: refers to external and environmental factors that influence us and our behaviour ex) social media, news

  2. Genie Case

    • 13-year-old girl, had been confined to a small room for most of her life by her parents which left her with permanent intellectual/cognitive and physical deficits. thus, researchers were left to wonder whether Genie had suffered from cognitive deficits caused by abuse or if she had been born with some degree of intellectual disability.

  3. Explain (with examples) the two opposing viewpoints from the nature-nurture debate as related to psychology

    • e.g 1 alcoholism: nature - passed down through genes/generations & nurture - watching people around you drink constantly
    • e.g. 2 aggressive behaviour: nature - being born with violent tendencies & nurture - exposed to violence through things such as video games
    1. Carl Jung
    • created the MBTI personality test
    • swiss psychiatrist who studied and distinguished between various personality types
    • believed humans are either introverted or extroverted
    1. Subjective experience, physiological response, behavioural response
    • subjective experience: the experience emotional intensities varies from each person depending on the situation e.g. you’re more scared in a haunted house than your friend is
    • physiological response: our body’s involuntary reaction to emotions e.g. fear = sweaty palms
    • behavioural response: how we express our emotions e.g smiling when happy
    1. Harry Harlow experiment
    • harry harlow, a psychologist during the 1950s and 1960s, wanted to demonstrate the universal need for contact or to feel and expression of emotions.
    • he used monkeys and applied his research to humans.
    • showed that the need for affection created a stronger bond between mother and baby than just physical needs, like food.
    • demonstrated that the need for comfort is hereditary (nature)
    1. Albert Bandura
    • questioned why the same situation could trigger different responses from different people or even the same person
    • he believes that people learn behaviour by watching and then imitating others

      developed the social-cognitive theory: a perspective on personality that takes a person’s motivation, environment, and behaviour into account

  1. Define: sensation, perception

    • sensation: receiving info through our five senses ex) hearing a car honking
    • perception: interpreting the info we get from our senses ex) realizing its your dad honking

  2. Define: learning, classical conditioning, operant conditioning

    • learning: a change in behaviour as a result of experience
    • classical conditioning: a type of learning that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus (bell) and a naturally occurring stimulus (meat)
    • operant conditioning: how the use of rewards and punishment can influence behaviours

  3. Clearly describe both Pavlov and Watson’s classical conditioning experiments, identifying the NS (neutral stimulus), US (unconditioned stimulus), UR (unconditioned response), CS (conditioned stimulus) and CR (conditioned response).

    • parlov: the dogs unconditioned stimulus (US) and his unconditioned response was to drool. parlov rung the bell (the neutral stimulus) at the same time that the food came out so that the dog would associate food with sound of the bell (conditioned stimulus) and would now drool to the sound of the bell (conditioned response).
    • watson: the child was around a rat (neutral stimulus) then watson would make loud noises (unconditioned stimulus) which made the baby start to cry (unconditioned response). now when the child sees rats (conditioned stimulus), they would be scared and start to cry (conditioned response).

  4. Clearly describe Skinner’s operant conditioning experiment.

    • skinner put a rat into a cage rigged with a bar which, when pushed down, would allow a pellet of food to fall into a food dish.
    • as it moved around the cage, the rat eventually pressed the bar and won a food pellet
    • the next time the rat pressed the bar, it received another food pellet and soon the rat was pushing the bar constantly

  5. Define each type of operant conditioning (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment) and provide a clear example to demonstrate your understanding.

    • positive reinforcement: a reward given for a desired behaviour ex) child does chores = gets allowance
    • negative reinforcement: an undesirable action is taken away because a desirable behaviour was done ex) child does well on test = not having to do dishes
    • positive punishment: undesirable action is given because undesirable behaviour was done ex) late to class 5x = detention
    • negative punishment: a desire is taken away because of undesirable behaviour ex) bad grade = no phone

  6. Define: memory, encoding, storage, retrieval, sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory, false memory

    • memory: the capacity to acquire, retain and remember knowledge and skills
    • encoding: the ability to acquire knowledge and skills
    • storage: the ability to retain knowledge and skills
    • retrieval: the ability to remember knowledge and skills
    • sensory memory: stores incoming info from the five senses
    • short term memory: remembering info for a short period of time
    • long term memory: the retention of info for a long period of time
    • false memory: false or distorted recollection of event

  7. Explain episodic memory, procedural memory, semantic memory

    • episodic: recalling specific events and experiences ex) first kiss
    • procedural: recalling info about performing certain actions ex) driving
    • semantic: recalling facts and concepts not related to personal experience ex) the sound a letter makes

  8. Define: Concept, reasoning, inductive reasoning, dialectical reasoning

    • concept: a category of objects that share common traits and can be grouped together
    • reasoning: using info to draw conclusions
    • inductive: a specific statement that moves to a general conclusion
    • dialectical: involves evaluating two opposite sides to an issue

  9. Define: Eustress, distress, exhaustion/burnout

    • eustress: the stress from a positive event
    • distress: when a person is bombarded by stressful events for a long period of time leading to possible health complications
    • burnout: where the body begins to run out of its defenses

  10. Acute vs Chronic Stress

    • acute: a new or unexpected event that was stressful
    • chronic: a prolonged and constant feeling of stress which could eventually lead to health issues

@@Sociology@@

  1. Define macrosociology and microsociology

    • macrosociology: wide perspective, concerned with studying how social systems affect society as a whole. e.g. views of entire religion
    • microsociology: narrow perspective, concerned with studying the roles and interactions of individuals and small groups of people. can lead to better understanding of how people interact in everyday life

  2. Define: socialization, primary socialization, secondary socialization, agents of socialization

    • socialization – lifelong process of learning the appropriate values, and behaviors related to a person's society
    • primary socialization – learning that we do what we do by interacting with and observing those around us while we are young. Begins at home with family
    • secondary socialization – learning that takes place later in childhood and adolescence – influences by non-family members
    • agents of socialization – people and institutions that help to socialize us

  3. Explain with examples how the following agents of socialization can affect an individuals’ behaviour: family, friends, school, government, religion, media.

    • family- what I like to eat
    • friends- how I talk, what I like to do
    • school – future career, motivation
    • government – how I live, economy
    • religion – who/what I believe
    • media – how I view myself

  4. Define: social psychology, conformity, obedience

    • social psychology – a discipline that uses scientific methods to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are affected by groups
    • conformity – any change in behaviour caused by another person or group; influence from others
    • obedience – compliant behaviour to someone's direct orders

  5. Outline the method and results for the Asch, Milgram and Zimbardo experiments. How do these experiment results contribute to our understanding of conformity and obedience?

    • asch: a group of 6 had to guess which line matched the standard line, but only one person wasn’t aware of the correct answer had the choice to conform to the wrong answer or chose the correct answer. shows conformity as the subjects response was influenced by the responses of others
    • milgram: how far people would be pressured to go against belief; shocking those who got wrong answer; 61% of teachers continues shocking the students. show obedience as the majority of the teachers obeyed the authority figures direct orders to keep going
    • zimbardo: it was intended to measure the effect of role-playing, labeling, and social expectations on behaviour over a period of two weeks. Guards become cruel while a number of prisoners become depressed and disoriented. shows conformity as the guards conformed to the roles they were given

  6. Define: collective behaviour, crowds, casual crowd, bystander apathy, conventional crowd, expressive crowd, acting crowd

    • Collective behaviour – the spontaneous and unstructured behaviour of a group people in response to the same event, satiation or problem
    • Crowd – large number of people in loose proximity, temporarily gathered for a specific reason
    • Casual crowd – loose collection of people who interact very little with each other Ex) crowd in shopping mall
    • Bystander Apathy – the unwillingness of a crowd to get involved when help is needed
    • Conventional crowd – a group of people who have gathered for a specific event ex) gathering at school assembly
    • Expressive crowd – a group of people gathered at an emotion event ex) attending NBA game
    • Acting crowd – a group of people focused on a single purpose, such as political or social goal ex) protests and riots, violent political demonstration.

  7. Outline one theory to explain human behaviour while in a crowd.

    • Convergence theory – people who want to behave in a certain way intentionally come together to form crowds

  8. Define: deviance, informal deviance, formal deviance, social control, positive sanctions, negative sanctions

    • Deviance – any violation of the norms established by a particular society
    • Informal deviance – violating norms that have not been confided into laws
    • Formal deviance – violating norms that have been confided into laws
    • Social control – ways a society encourages individuals to conform to societal norms
    • Positive Sanctions – society constructed expression of approval, can be formal or informal
    • Negative Sanctions – socially constructed expression of disapproval

  9. Define: stereotype, prejudice, discrimination, microaggression, oppression, race, ethnicity, systemic racism, critical race theory

    • Sterotype – oversimplified/exaggerated opinion about a large group of people based off of experience (opinion) Ex) All Asians are good at math
    • Prejudice – unfavourable feelings or judgements about numbers of a group of people that are made without experience (feelings) Ex) judging other religions solely because you think yours is the best
    • Discrimination – acting on one's prejudicial views and treating individuals or a group of people differently because of their race, gender, sexuality (action) Ex) a teacher giving a boy a bad mark because he is a boy
    • Microagression – everyday slights, snubs, or insults, whether intentional or unintentional which communicates hostile negative messages to individuals based on their membership in a marginalized group ex) slurs
    • Oppression – refers to the cruel and unjust treatment of a group of people by those in position of power ex) Glass ceiling in workplaces towards minorites/women
    • Race – socially constructed concept based on the assumption that people who were physically different from one another were also biologically different
    • Ethnicity – a shared cultural heritage
    • Systemic racism – asserts that racism was built into the very foundation of our society and that it now exists within every aspect of society
    • Critical race theory – suggests that the law and legal institutions are inherently racist granting white people more privilege and leniency than what is experienced by racialized people
    1. How can concepts from sociology connect to the nature vs. nurture debate?
    • e.g. is our personality developed and influenced by our surroundings (nurture) or from birth (nature)
    • are people inherently racist or is it a learned social behaviour