AP US History Review: Major Themes and Events

Native American Societies Before 1492

• Organized by Location: Diverse cultures developed across North America.

  • Aztecs (Mexica):

  • Major city: Tenochtitlan.

  • Created written language, advanced irrigation systems, known for human sacrifice.

  • Maya:

  • Located in the Yucatan Peninsula, developed complex irrigation, built stone temples and palaces.

  • Inca:

  • Located in the Andes Mountains (modern-day Peru); massive empire supported by terrace farming of staple crops (like potatoes).

• Common Crop: All three societies cultivated maize, a nutritious crop that facilitated cultural and technological development.

• Pueblo Societies (New Mexico/Arizona):

  • Sedentary farmers of maize; constructed adobe houses on cliff sides.

• Great Plains/Great Basin:

  • Mainly hunter-gatherer societies including Ute people organized in kinship groups.

• Pacific Northwest:

  • Reliant on fishing, elk; societies like the Chinook built large plank houses from cedar.

  • Chumash lived more inland and were also hunter-gatherers.

• Mississippi River Valley:

  • Larger, complex societies due to fertile soil.

  • Hopewell: Towns of 4,000 - 6,000 traded widely.

  • Cahokia: Tens of thousands led by chieftains with centralized governance.

• Northeast:

  • Iroquois utilized maize, squash, and beans, living in longhouses similar to Pacific Northwest societies.

European Exploration in the Americas

• Reasons for Exploration:

  1. Population increase following the Black Death.

  2. Political unification.

  3. Desire for Asian luxury goods.

• Trade Routes: 1300s-1400s controlled by Muslim traders; Europeans sought sea routes.

• Prince Henry the Navigator (Portugal): Attempted to find a passage to Asia around Africa; established trading post empire on the African coast, dominating Indian Ocean trade.

• Isabella and Ferdinand (Spain): Involved in exploration with motives of Christianity.

• Christopher Columbus: Sailed West, mistakenly landed in the Caribbean (San Salvador), initial interactions led to his return with gold and native captives.

The Columbian Exchange and Spanish Conquest

• Columbian Exchange: Transfer of food, animals, minerals, people, and diseases among Africa, Europe, and the Americas.

• Mercantilism: Heavy government direction in trade systems.

Disease Impact

• Smallpox ravaged native populations:

  • Tenochtitlan (400,000 inhabitants) fell to Hernan Cortes.

  • Hispaniola: Arawak and Taino populations devastated.

  • Incas: Population decreased from 9 million to 500,000 over a century.

Food and Animals

• Americas to Europe: Maize, tomatoes, potatoes, cacao, tobacco.

• Europe/Africa to Americas: Rice, wheat, horses, pigs, cattle.

• Mineral Wealth: Spanish plundered gold and silver from Aztecs and Incas, leading to immense wealth for Spain.

Labor, Slavery, and Caste in Spanish America

• African Slave Trade: Shift from local enslaved individuals to transatlantic trade by Europeans due to demand for labor.

  • Justification rooted in biblical narratives and gun trading.

• Purpose of Slavery: Initially to solve labor shortages; included the Encomienda System.

• Spanish Caste System: Primarily determined taxation and social standing.

  • Peninsulares, Criollos, Mestizos, Mulattoes, Africans, Native Americans.

Cultural Interactions Between Europeans and Native Americans

• Spanish hegemony over new lands prompted religious missions.

• Native spiritual beliefs often conflicted with Spanish Catholicism.

• Syncretism occurred, with both parties adopting aspects of each other's cultures.

Examples of Resistance

• Pueblo Revolt (1610): Reaction to forced conversions, leading to native uprisings and temporary successes.

• Bartolome de Las Casas: Advocated against mistreatment of natives and proposed substituting enslaved labor with African enslaved peoples due to declining native populations.

European Colonization in the Americas

• Spanish: Motivated by God and gold, established encomienda system, employed African slave labor.

• French: Focused on trade settlements; interactions mainly for commerce with Indigenous peoples.

• Dutch: Sought trade routes with no interest in converting natives.

• British: Economic motivations and land acquisition led to colonization efforts.

Regions of British Colonies

Chesapeake Colonies

• Jamestown (1607): Joint-stock company founded by attempts to find gold; transitioned into a tobacco economy.

  • Lead to Native displacement and conflicts like Bacon’s Rebellion.

New England Colonies

• Pilgrims (1620): Seeking religious freedom, settlers established an agricultural economy.

Southern Colonies and Caribbean

• Tobacco and Sugar: Cash crops led to the establishment of harsh slave codes and labor systems.

Middle Colonies

• Economic Diversity: Focus on trade settlements with a mix of social classes.

Democratic Self-Governance

• Colonial legislatures led to increasing political autonomy and localized governance, laying frameworks for later governmental structures.

Transatlantic Trade

• Triangular Trade: New England rum to West Africa, enslaved peoples to the Americas, and plantation goods back to New England.

Slavery and Labor Systems

• The Middle Passage: Enslaved Africans transported under horrific conditions; eventual reliance on enslaved labor resulted from servant uprisings.

Enlightenment and the Great Awakening

• Enlightenment: Encouraged rational thought and individual rights.

• Great Awakening: Increased religious fervor leading to democratization of religion, mobilization against social norms.

• Impact: Grassroots movements towards egalitarianism emerged, fostering spiritual connections between social classes.

The French and Indian War (1754-1763)

• Resulted from territorial disputes; impacted British and French relations with Native American groups.

• Led to the Proclamation Line of 1763 preventing westward colonization; increased British taxation problems back home.

Road to the American Revolution

• Taxation without Representation: British Parliament's tax acts rose resentment among colonists leading to organized resistance.

• Continental Congress realized intercolonial unity was vital against British oppression leading to the possible War of Independence.

Organized by Location: Diverse cultures developed across North America, each with unique traditions, social structures, and economies.

Aztecs (Mexica):

• Major city: Tenochtitlan, one of the largest cities in the world at its peak, characterized by its intricate canal system and floating gardens (chinampas).

• Created one of the earliest written languages in the Americas, allowing for the recording of their history, religion, and administrative affairs.

• Developed advanced irrigation systems facilitating agriculture in their arid environment, contributing to a surplus of crops.

• Known for complex religious rituals, including human sacrifice, which they believed was essential for appeasing their gods and ensuring cosmic balance.

Maya:

• Located in the Yucatan Peninsula and parts of Central America, known for their elaborate city-states such as Chichen Itza and Tikal.

• Developed sophisticated systems of writing (hieroglyphs) and mathematics, producing intricate calendars that showcased their astronomical knowledge.

• Built grand stone temples, palaces, and observatories, displaying advanced knowledge of architecture and engineering.

• Engaged in long-distance trade, exchanging goods like cacao, textiles, and artisan crafts with other cultures.

Inca:

• Located in the Andes Mountains (modern-day Peru), the Incan Empire was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, known for its extensive network of roads and bridges.

• Supported by advanced terrace farming techniques, they cultivated staple crops such as potatoes and maize, which constituted their diet.

• Created a centralized economy that controlled production and distribution of goods, integrating diverse cultures within their empire.

• The Inca's rich tradition of textiles, pottery, and metalworks reflected their artistry and cultural significance.

Common Crop: All three societies cultivated maize, a nutritious crop that not only facilitated cultural and technological development but also played a central role in their diets, religious practices, and economies.

Pueblo Societies (New Mexico/Arizona):

• Sedentary farmers who cultivated maize, beans, and squash, establishing a stable agricultural lifestyle.

• Constructed intricate adobe houses on cliff sides, showing adaptability to their arid environment and providing defense against invaders.

• Engaged in trade with neighboring tribes, exchanging pottery, textiles, and tools, which reflected their rich cultural practices.

Great Plains/Great Basin:

• Mainly hunter-gatherer societies, including the Ute people, who organized in kinship groups.

• Utilized a nomadic lifestyle based on seasonal migrations to follow bison herds and gather wild plants, which were integral to their diets.

Pacific Northwest:

• Societies like the Chinook relied heavily on fishing (especially salmon) and the hunting of elk.

• Built large plank houses from cedar in elaborate villages that displayed their social hierarchy and connection to the environment.

• The Chumash lived more inland and employed a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, supplemented by seasonal agriculture.

Mississippi River Valley:

• Developed larger, complex societies supported by fertile soil, leading to significant agricultural output.

• The Hopewell culture had towns of 4,000 - 6,000 inhabitants and traded widely, establishing trade networks that extended across North America.

• Cahokia, a major urban center, was home to tens of thousands of people led by chieftains with centralized governance, known for their large earthen mounds and complex society.

Northeast:

• The Iroquois Confederacy utilized maize, squash, and beans, forming a matrilineal society that thrived on agriculture and hunting.

• Lived in longhouses that housed multiple families, reflecting their communal lifestyle and resource-sharing practices.