The Cold War Thaws: 1947-1968

The Cold War Thaws (1947-1968)

I. Second Red Scare

  • Creation of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

    • Established in 1938, originally targeted Nazis.
    • In 1946, shifted focus towards anti-communism.
    • 1947: Began investigation into Hollywood.
    • Hollywood production bodies involved: MPAA (Motion Picture Association of America), AMPP (American Movie Producers Association), and Screen Actors Guild (SAG) which led to a widespread blacklist.
    • Ronald Reagan served as President of SAG from 1947-1952.

  • Soviet Espionage Cases

    • Alger Hiss convicted of perjury in 1950, with significant involvement from Richard Nixon in exposing him.
    • Julius and Ethel Rosenberg arrested in 1950 and executed for espionage.
    • In 1950, the United Kingdom revealed Klaus Fuchs (involved in the Manhattan Project) was a Soviet spy.
    • Senator Joe McCarthy claimed that 205 (later revised to 57) State Department officials were members of the Communist Party USA (CPUSA).

  • Domestic Responses to the Threat of Communism

    • Civil Defense Drills: Programs for public safety in the case of nuclear attacks.
    • "Duck and Cover" Drills: Educational campaigns teaching children how to protect themselves.
    • Rise of Dystopian Literature reflecting anxieties of the time.

II. A Thaw in Europe

  • Key Figures

    • President Dwight D. Eisenhower (34th President of the United States) from 1953-1961, Republican.
    • General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev (Communist) from 1953-1964.

  • 1953: New Leadership in the USSR

    • Eisenhower took office in January. He delivered the "Chance for Peace" speech.
    • March: Stalin died, leading to a collective leadership model by key figures:
    • Malenkov (Premier)
    • Molotov
    • Bulganin
    • Beria (Head of Internal Affairs) executed in July 1953 for treason and terrorism.
    • Khrushchev emerged as the predominant leader by early 1955.

  • Soviet Push for Thaw

    • Driven by the desire to reduce defense spending post-Korean War annexation as arms escalation.
    • Notably, the Soviets tested the hydrogen bomb the same month as the Korean armistice in July 1953.

  • Eisenhower’s “New Look” Defense Policy

    • Spearheaded by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles.
    • Emphasized brinkmanship: the strategy of pushing dangerous events to the verge of disaster.
    • Included the threat of massive retaliation to deter Soviet aggression.
    • Aimed to cut some spending on conventional forces while expanding nuclear capabilities.
    • Included CIA covert operations as a tool of foreign policy.

  • Hope for German Reunification

    • In 1954, USSR proposed a reunification of Germany and its neutrality.
    • The West rejected this proposal primarily due to the USSR's conditions, including requests to join NATO.

  • Khrushchev’s Concept of Peaceful Coexistence

    • Argued socialism would outcompete capitalism in peacetime.
    • Called for the de-occupation and neutrality of Austria, which was accepted by Western powers.

  • Formation of NATO vs Warsaw Pact

    • In 1955, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) joined NATO as a military alliance.
    • In response, the Soviets formed the Warsaw Pact, a mutual defense pact among Eastern Bloc countries.
    • Rationale for Warsaw Pact formation included countering NATO's defensive posture.

  • The Spirit of Geneva

    • The July 1955 Geneva Summit was the first meeting of the Big Four (US, UK, USSR, France) since the Potsdam Conference.
    • Discussions centered around disarmament and the German situation.
    • The USSR once again offered to unify Germany but was met with refusal from Ike and Dulles.

  • Proposals for Open Skies

    • Eisenhower suggested open skies for monitoring nuclear weapons and troop movements, which was rejected by Khrushchev.
    • The US commenced a U-2 spy program regardless of this rejection.
    • September 1955: USSR started diplomatic relations and trade with the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG).
    • Although Khrushchev reconciled with Tito from Yugoslavia, Yugoslavia did not join the Warsaw Pact but entered COMECON in 1968.

III. Destalinization

  • Khrushchev’s Secret Speech

    • Delivered in February 1956 during the 20th Party Congress of the CPSU.
    • Advocated for peaceful coexistence and criticized Stalin’s oppressive regimes.
    • Introduced the idea that “national roads to socialism” could differ from the Soviet model.
    • Proposed the dissolution of COMINFORM, aiming to promote more reformist communist ideas.

  • Events in Poland (Poznan June, Polish October)

    • In 1956, labor riots erupted in Poland leading to calls for reform by Gomulka and the Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP).
    • Gomulka claimed, "We’re still communists; we’re not leaving the Warsaw Pact."

  • 1956 Hungarian Revolt

    • Led by Imre Nagy, a reform-minded communist Prime Minister.
    • October saw pro-reform marches in Budapest escalate into a nationwide revolt against Soviet influence.
    • Soviet troops intervened, and Nagy established a new government while announcing a withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact and a non-aligned status.
    • On November 4, Soviet forces invaded Hungary, leading to the installation of hardline leader Janos Kadar.
    • After purges and expulsions, Nagy was arrested, tried, and secretly executed in 1958 for treason.
    • The US response was significant for its lack of direct intervention, leading to questions about Western credibility in Eastern Europe.

IV. Renewed Tensions

  • Sputnik Launch

    • On October 4, 1957, the USSR successfully launched Sputnik.
    • This event raised alarms in the US regarding a possible technological and nuclear superiority by the Soviets.
    • Eisenhower may have anticipated but not opposed the USSR's first satellite launch, leading to the establishment of NASA in 1958.

  • The Second Berlin Crisis

    • Khrushchev suspected Western plans for nuclearizing the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG).
    • On November 27, 1958, he issued a Berlin Ultimatum, demanding the demilitarization of West Berlin within six months, failing which the Soviets might blockade the city.
    • Subsequent meetings between Ike and Khrushchev in September 1959 led to the withdrawal of the ultimatum, and a 1960 Paris Summit was scheduled.

  • Kitchen Debate

    • A notable event was the Kitchen Debate between Khrushchev and Vice President Nixon during the 1959 American Exposition in Moscow.

  • 1960 Paris Summit

    • Aimed to discuss Germany and Berlin’s status but derailed due to the U-2 incident.
    • Eisenhower claimed the U-2 was merely a weather satellite, leading Khrushchev to demand an apology which Eisenhower refused.
    • The US continued its stance against recognizing GDR (German Democratic Republic) and sought international control over Berlin.

V. Rise of Brezhnev

  • Fall of Khrushchev

    • Orchestrated by Brezhnev and others due to various factors including the ineffectiveness during the Cuban Missile Crisis, unmet ultimatums, and economic failures.
    • In October 1964, the Central Committee officially accepted Khrushchev’s resignation, with Leonid Brezhnev replacing him as the new General Secretary.

  • General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev (1964-1982)

    • Ended de-Stalinization attempts and liberalization, adopting a more conservative economic outlook.
    • Shifted focus from regional political issues to a global diplomatic strategy, emphasizing détente.

  • Reasons for Détente

    • The US was interested in resolving the Vietnam conflict while restraining Soviet expansionism.
    • The Soviets sought collective security and trade with the West to strengthen their economy.

  • Prague Spring of 1968

    • January: A reformist leader Alexander Dubcek became General Secretary in Czechoslovakia, promoting Action Program aimed at economic liberalization.
    • In April, the Action Program faced disapproval from hardliners within the Communist bloc who feared it could lead to counter-revolution.

  • Warsaw Letter

    • Issued in July 1968, signed by the USSR and multiple Eastern Bloc countries, emphasized shared concerns regarding Czechoslovakia’s reforms.

  • Bratislava Declaration

    • In August 3, 1968, delegates conferred and committed to socialism in the Eastern bloc, indicating a limit on the Prague Spring reforms despite Dubcek's insistence on continuing the Action Program.

  • Warsaw Pact Invasion

    • On August 20-21, 1968, Warsaw Pact forces invaded Czechoslovakia, met with passive resistance from the populace.
    • Dubcek was arrested and taken to Moscow, while the UN Security Council voted to condemn the invasion but was vetoed by the USSR.
    • Following the invasion, Dubcek announced a normalization of the situation, effectively ending the Prague Spring.

  • Brezhnev Doctrine

    • Announced in September/November 1968, declared that Soviet-aligned countries had responsibilities to adhere to Marxist-Leninist principles and Warsaw Pact commitments that superseded their sovereignty.
    • Justified the Prague invasion as an internal matter and not an act of expansionism.

VI. First Indochina War

  • Understanding Indochina

    • Composed of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos, historically French colonies.
    • During World War II, Japan occupied Indochina, increasing the complexity of post-war liberation from colonial rule.
    • Initially, the US urged the French (FRA) to withdraw from Indochina.

  • Domino Theory

    • The belief that if a single country fell to communism, neighboring countries would quickly follow.
    • Under President Truman, financial assistance was provided to France to combat Viet Minh forces.

  • First Indochina War (1946-1954)

    • Conflict between French colonial forces and Viet Minh, predominantly in Northern Vietnam.
    • The US supported FRA militarily against communist forces, leading to the installation of Bao Dai as a puppet leader.

  • Ho Chi Minh

    • Leader of the Viet Minh and a key figure in Vietnam's anti-colonial struggle.
    • Post-World War II, he declared a Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 seeking US aid, which was rejected by Truman.
    • By 1950, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was recognized by both Mao Zedong and Joseph Stalin.

  • Ike’s New Look in Asia

    • Eisenhower and Dulles' Domino Theory worsened perceptions of Ho Chi Minh as a communist threat.
    • The US saw maintaining nuclear supremacy as a means to negotiate with both the USSR and China.
    • Eisenhower deployed advisors to assist French forces during the conflict, ultimately funding up to 80% of the French military budget in Indochina by 1954. However, no US combat troops were sent.

  • Fall of Dien Bien Phu

    • The battle led to the French withdrawal from Indochina, leaving the US, USSR, and China with vested interests in the region.

  • Geneva Accords

    • Signed in July 1954, dividing Vietnam at the 17th parallel, despite the Viet Minh controlling two-thirds of the country.
    • Scheduled national elections were promised within two years, a provision the US refused to sign, fearing a Viet Minh victory.
    • Subsequently, the US began direct support for South Vietnam.

  • Ngo Dinh Diem

    • Installed by the US as Prime Minister of South Vietnam; he was Catholic, educated in the US, but increasingly deemed corrupt and political.
    • He rejected elections for national reunification and faced growing dissent.

  • Formation of SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization)

    • Established in September 1954 to protect interests in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
    • Southeast Asian nations like Indonesia, India, and Burma refused to join due to their non-aligned positions.

  • Soviet Response to SEATO

    • The Soviet Union backed the Bandung Conference held in 1955 which advocated for non-alignment and solidarity among Asian countries.
    • Khrushchev visited several Asian nations and promised aid to those who sought it, emphasizing Soviet support for anti-colonial movements.

  • Taiwan Straits Crises

    • First (1954-55) and Second (1958) crises arose from tensions between China and Taiwan.
    • Featuring military actions from China against islands of the Taiwan strait as reactions to perceived threats from SEATO.
    • The US signed mutual defense pacts with Taiwan while not committing to intervening on the Chinese mainland.

  • Sino-Soviet Split

    • Tensions emerged as Khrushchev refused to aid Mao in reclaiming Taiwan, leading to resentment and a breakdown of relations.
    • By June 20, 1959, the Soviets withdrew technical experts from China, further signaling a fracture between the two communist powers.

IX. JFK and Vietnam

  • Kennedy’s Flexible Response

    • Criticized Eisenhower for allowing a perceived “missile gap” to establish.
    • Advocated for Flexible Response, increasing conventional forces to prepare for limited wars as necessary, notably in the context of Vietnam.
    • Presented as a more adaptive and rational approach than Eisenhower's New Look strategy.

  • Viet Cong

    • Noted as the southern communist guerrillas opposing Diem's regime, which announced intentions to reunite Vietnam in 1959.
    • Formed the National Liberation Front in 1960 with support from Communist China.

  • Kennedy’s Vietnam Strategy

    • Increased financial support and the number of military advisors.
    • Authorized limited US involvement in combat operations along with counterinsurgency efforts.
    • Established the Strategic Hamlet Program and approved the use of napalm and Agent Orange in military operations.

  • Fall of Diem

    • Internal repression by Diem, particularly against Buddhists, led to loss of popular support in South Vietnam.
    • Diem resisted reforms and was deemed increasingly corrupt.
    • The CIA was authorized to assist in the planning of a coup, resulting in Diem’s overthrow and assassination on November 1-2, 1963, replacing him with Duong Van Minh.

  • Assassination of JFK

    • Occurred on November 22, 1963, further complicating US policy in Vietnam as the new president took office amid escalating conflict.

X. LBJ and Vietnam

  • President Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ)

    • Served as the 36th President from 1963-1969. He faced the crisis of rising Viet Cong influence.

  • LBJ’s Escalation Policy

    • Entered office with the VC having strong control over rural areas of South Vietnam; urban areas also faced attacks.
    • Sought to significantly escalate US military involvement in Vietnam.

  • Gulf of Tonkin Incident

    • On August 2, 1964, North Vietnamese forces attacked the USS Maddox; claims of a subsequent attack on August 4 prompted LBJ to bomb NVN naval facilities.
    • Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, granting LBJ broad authority to use military force in Vietnam.

  • Escalation of Military Actions

    • March 1965 marked the start of Operation Rolling Thunder, including bombings of North Vietnam and VC positions, coupled with troop deployments.
    • By July 1965, LBJ ordered 180,000 troops into Vietnam, raising numbers to about 500,000 by 1968, although restrictions limited direct operations in the North.

  • Support to the VC

    • VC received assistance from North Vietnam, while the US's indiscriminate bombing practices (napalm, Agent Orange) led to a significant civilian casualty rate.
    • Domestic and international backlash against the Vietnam War intensified as China warned of escalating nuclear threats amid its actions.

  • Tet Offensive

    • Launched in January 1968 by NVN and VC forces aiming at strategic targets including US bases and the US Embassy in Saigon.
    • Though the US regained most territory by March 1968, the scale and coordination of the attacks constituted a military defeat for the US but a moral victory for the North.
    • Resulted in reevaluation of US involvement and declining public support for LBJ and the war.

  • LBJ’s Attempt for Peace

    • Announced a partial bombing halt on March 31, 1968 and called for peace negotiations.
    • Opted not to seek re-election amid escalating national dissent, leading to the start of Paris Peace Talks on May 10, 1968, and a temporary cessation of bombing on October 31, 1968.