Hume and Rousseau: In-Depth Notes

David Hume

  • Appears in the Treatise of Human Nature (3:1:1) where he discusses moral reasoning.
    • Hume suggests that moral reasoning can contain category-mistakes; specifically, it is wrong to infer moral rights from mere existence under natural law.
    • Example: Just because humans need food doesn't intrinsically grant a 'natural right' to food.
  • The fallacy of deriving 'ought' from 'is'.
    • This is only a fallacy in a formal deduction context.
    • Hume argues it's still valid to discuss 'natural rights' based on human needs without claiming a formal deduction.
  • Hume's ideas influenced the formulation of natural rights and prompted philosophical reflectiveness on these claims.
  • Described as a proto-utilitarian, influencing figures like Jeremy Bentham.
    • He emphasized that government should be evaluated historically and by its outcomes rather than abstract ideals of law.
  • Hume's political thought reflects a conservative temperament similar to Edmund Burke.

Further Reading on David Hume

Primary Sources
  • New Letters of David Hume, ed. R. Kilbansky and E.C. Mossner (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1954).
  • Enquiries Concerning Human Understanding and Concerning the Principles of Morals, ed. E. Selby-Bigge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975).
  • A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. L.A. Selby-Bigge (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978).
Secondary Sources
  • Forbes, D.: Hume's Philosophical Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975).
  • Mackie, J.L.: Hume's Moral Theory (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980).
  • Miller, D.: Philosophy and Ideology in Hume's Political Thought (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981).
  • Whelan, F.G.: Order and Artifice in Hume's Political Philosophy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985).

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78)

  • Born in Geneva; raised without formal education by his father after his mother died at childbirth.
    • Displayed a sensitive personality with a profound sense of his own genius.
    • Early life marked by wandering and transient relationships, often with intense friendships.
  • Became part of the intellectual center in Paris, associating with the philosophes, especially Diderot.
    • Contributed to the Encyclopedia, signaling an early early engagement with Enlightenment thought but also divergent views.
  • Rousseau's originality led to significant impacts on political theory, education, literature, and ethics.
    • His work elevated emotion and will above reason, positioning him as a precursor to the Romantic movement.
  • His major works, Emile and The Social Contract (both 1762), elicited controversy and faced persecution.
    • Proponents of established authority sought to suppress his ideas through public burning of his texts.

Key Works and Themes

  • A Discourse on the Arts and Sciences (1750):
    • Claims civilization leads to moral corruption, challenging Enlightenment ideals of progress and reason.
    • Advocates for virtue and community over individualism and reason.
  • A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755):
    • Argues that private property leads to inequality and moral decay, introducing the state of nature concept with a different framing than the rational Enlightenment view.
Intention of Major Works
  • In Emile:
    • Proposes a natural education free from societal corruption.
    • Suggests that individuals eventually clash with society, questioning the efficacy of his educational ideal.
  • In The Social Contract:
    • Famous opening: "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains."
    • Asserts that true freedom requires moral choice and self-governance, examining the tension between nature and social obligations.
    • Advocates for a type of direct democracy, rejecting representative democracy.
    • Introduces the concept of the General Will as a collective agreement that aligns individual desires with the good of the community.

Challenges and Controversies

  • Difficulties in identifying the General Will and ensuring that citizens act upon it rather than selfish desires.
  • Critique of Rousseau’s model for modern large states, which struggles under his idea of direct democracy.
  • Concerns regarding totalitarianism and the misappropriation of the General Will concept by leaders claiming to reflect it.
  • Despite these critiques, his democratization of the idea of popular sovereignty remains impactful.
Further Reading on Rousseau
Primary Sources
  • The Discourses and Other Early Political Writings, ed. V. Gourevitch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
  • The Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings, ed. V. Gourevitch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
Secondary Sources
  • Cooper, L.D.: Rousseau, Nature, and the Problem of the Good Life (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999).

Conclusion

  • Both Hume and Rousseau contributed foundational ideas that shaped modern philosophical and political thought, prompting ongoing debate in the realms of morality, rights, and democratic structures.