Cognition, Language, and Intelligence

Cognition refers to the brain's mental activity, encompassing:
- Thinking
- Remembering
- Judgement & decision-making
- Problem-solving
- Knowing

Mental representations are the building blocks of thought, allowing us to contemplate:
- Things that are physically absent (e.g., abstract concepts like justice)
- Nonexistent things (e.g., unicorns)
- Imaginary scenarios (e.g., a dog riding a horse)
- Objects or concepts that are not currently observable but are known to exist.

Concepts are mental representations that serve as categories to group similar objects, ideas, or people. They include:
- Diverse elements, which may not always have straightforward definitions or boundaries.
- Each concept is diverse, transcending beyond mere physical properties and often exhibiting blurred boundaries.

Prototype is referenced as the best example of a concept, characterized by the most typical features of that concept.

Concepts are organized into hierarchies:
- For example, the hierarchy of Furniture includes:
- Superordinate: Furniture
- Basic: Bed, Sofa, Cabinet, Chair
- Subordinate: Office Chair, Dining Chair, High Chair, Rocking Chair

Problems distinguish into two categories:
- Well Defined: Problems with clear goals and options, e.g., algebra, Wordle.
- Ill-defined: Problems with uncertain goals and options, e.g., choosing a career path, solving climate change.

Two notable approaches include:
- Algorithm:
- A methodical step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution, though not always the most efficient.
- Insight:
- A sudden understanding of the problem or solution, seemingly magical but involving significant unconscious cognition.

Drawing from experience is beneficial for:
- Encountering problems similar to those experienced previously.
- Utilizing developed skills and knowledge.
Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used, which can hinder seeing creative solutions.

Judgments: Conclusions drawn from known evidence.
Decisions: Choices impacting behavior. Even though we like to believe in rational decision-making, this is frequently not the case.

Kahneman introduced the Dual-Processing Theories concerning JDM, which includes two types of thinking:
- Automatic System:
- Fast, effortless, and intuitive reactions; efficient but often incorrect.
- Controlled System:
- Slow, deliberate, involving conscious attention; engaging in rational, logical thought processes.

Heuristics are mental shortcuts used in JDM to simplify complex problems.
- Representativeness Heuristic:
- A judgement based on how well an example fits a prototype, contrasting with stereotyping.
- Stereotyping: "You belong to this group, hence must have this trait."
- Representativeness: "You exhibit this trait, insinuating you belong to this group."
- Availability Heuristic:
- A judgement based on how quickly information comes to mind, influencing perceived commonality of events.
- Example: Since 2022, chronic lower respiratory diseases became a less discussed topic compared to COVID-19, which often leads to misperceptions of its prevalence.
- Consequence: Public irrational fears of statistically unlikely events like plane crashes versus more common car crashes or shark attacks compared to dog attacks.
- Misinformation: Repeated exposure to specific narratives can create illusions of truth.

Judgements can be influenced by emotional responses regarding what is perceived as good or bad.
- Practical applications include:
- Advertisers utilizing positive emotional appeals through attractive designs.
- Politicians aiming to evoke negative feelings toward opponents to sway votes.
- Courtroom lawyers attempting to elicit specific emotional responses from jurors about defendants.

Confirmation Bias:
- A tendency to seek evidence supporting preexisting beliefs, leading to potential skewing of information gathering.
- Examples include selective reading of news based on political preference or doctors only pursuing tests aligning with their initial diagnosis.
Framing:
- How information is presented can significantly impact JDM outcomes.
- For instance, stating a surgery has a 40% survival rate versus a 60% mortality rate can yield dramatically different perceptions, despite being the same statistic.

Language is defined as a shared system of symbols (words and gestures) and rules governing how to use these symbols to create meaning.
- Components include:
- Phonemes: The smallest units of sound in speech.
- Grammar: The system of rules guiding language use.
- Syntax: The arrangement of words to create sentences.
- Pragmatic: Social norms surrounding language use, such as turn-taking and intonation in conversations.

Proposed by Whorf in 1956, this hypothesis posits:
- "Language is not just a tool for voicing ideas but rather shapes our thoughts and concepts."

Language influences cognitive processes and reflects cultural perceptions.
Language variation can affect color perception: Example - English speakers perceive two different shades of blue differently than Russian speakers who classify them as distinct colors.

Two theoretical frameworks addressing this question:
- Behaviorist Perspective (BF Skinner): Proposes language learning is analogous to other forms of learned behavior through reinforcement.
- Linguistic Perspective (Noam Chomsky): Argues humans are biologically predisposed with a language acquisition device that facilitates language learning without direct instruction, highlighting innate capabilities supported by experiential learning.