Manifest Destiny and the Road to Civil War

Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy

Manifest Destiny

• Belief in the 19th century that the U.S. was destined by God to expand its territory across North America.
• This expansion would extend and enhance U.S. political, social, and economic influences.
• In 1844, John O’Sullivan wrote about the nation's "manifest destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federated self-government entrusted to us."
• Land greed and democratic ideals fueled this expansionist movement, which was largely supported and led by farmers.
• Thomas Hart Benton was a leading proponent of expansionism.

John Tyler's Presidency

• John Tyler succeeded Harrison after his death.
• He was a Jacksonian Democrat who opposed Jackson's dictatorial tactics during the nullification crisis and subsequently joined the Whigs.
• Tyler opposed the Whig party's agenda, particularly the American System, even though the Whigs controlled Congress at the time.
• He vetoed more legislation than any other one-term president.
• Tyler specifically opposed the Clay-Webster wing of the Whig party.
• Key events during Tyler's presidency:
  • Clay's scheme for a third bank was thwarted.
  • There were attempts to impeach him.
  • Tariffs were raised to 32%.

The Maine Boundary Dispute and Aroostook War (1838)

• The Aroostook War involved Canadian lumberjacks claiming the Aroostook valley, which was met with resistance by the Maine militia; it was a bloodless conflict.
• The Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842) resolved the dispute:
  • The U.S. received over half of the disputed territory.
  • The British expressed regret for the Caroline affair.
  • The British agreed not to interfere with American slavery.
  • The U.S. gained land in Minnesota.

The Oregon Boundary Dispute

• The Oregon boundary dispute was a significant issue in the 1844 election, with the slogan "54 40’ or fight."
• Both the U.S. and Britain had claims to the land.
• The British were willing to negotiate due to the influx of American settlers.
• President Polk was forced to compromise to avoid war with Britain while also fighting Mexico.
• The North-South balance was in jeopardy due to this dispute.

War with Mexico

• The annexation of Texas led to conflict with Mexico.
• Polk sent John Slidell to Mexico City with two objectives:
  1. Purchase California and New Mexico territories for $25 million$.
  2. Settle the Mexico-Texas border dispute.
• Slidell's mission failed on both counts.
• Polk and Slidell asserted that the border of Texas was the Rio Grande, while the Mexicans claimed it was the Nueces River further north.
• The immediate cause of the war:
  • Polk sent Gen. Taylor and his army toward the Rio Grande, into territory claimed by Mexico, while awaiting a response from Mexico.
  • The Mexicans captured an army patrol, killing 11 Americans.
  • Polk used this incident to persuade Congress to declare war.
• Abraham Lincoln questioned the necessity of the war through his "Spot" resolutions.

Consequences of the War with Mexico

• The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo resulted in the Mexican Cession.
  • Mexico recognized the border at the Rio Grande.
  • The U.S. acquired California and New Mexico (the Mexican Cession).
  • The U.S. paid Mexico $15 million$.
• The treaty faced opposition in the U.S. Senate from both Whigs and some southern Democrats.
• The Wilmot Proviso, which aimed to ban slavery in all territories acquired from Mexico, passed the House twice but was defeated in the Senate.

Polk's Administration: Results of Western Land Acquisition

• Polk's administration saw the annexation of Texas, acquisition of Oregon land, and acquisition of New Mexico and California.
• The major question arising from these acquisitions was the status of slavery in these new areas, creating tension between eastern abolitionists, southerners, and westerners.

Controversy Over the Expansion of Slavery

• The Whig Party was reestablished as a two-party system in 1837.
• The Whigs took their name as a symbol of resistance to monarchical power, similar to the British Whigs' resistance to George III, viewing Andrew Jackson as "King Andrew I."
• The Whig party comprised a diverse group from all sections and economic strata.
• Henry Clay served as the unifying figure for the party.
• The party included bankers, advocates of sound money, protectionists, western farmers, and southern planters who opposed Jackson's support of the "Common Man."

Nature of the Slavery / Expansion Conflict

• The conflict involved the attitudes of the two major national political parties toward western territories.
• Philosophical differences existed between the North and South wings of these parties regarding slavery.

The 1848 Election

• Three main parties:
  • Whigs: Nominated Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore, with no official platform.
  • Democrats: Nominated Lewis Cass, advocating popular sovereignty.
  • Free Soil Party: Nominated Martin Van Buren, promoting "free soil, free men, free labor, and free speech," supporting the Wilmot Proviso and a homestead act.

The Gold Rush and California Statehood

• The Gold Rush at Sutter’s Fort led to a massive influx of people into California.
• By 1850, California had enough residents to apply for statehood.
• California’s admission as a state threatened the delicate balance in the Union.

Four Possible Solutions to the Slavery Question

1. Extend the $36^\circ30'$ Missouri Compromise line (Moderate Solution).
2. Allow popular sovereignty in the western territories (Democratic Solution).
3. Adopt the Wilmot Proviso (Abolitionist Solution).
4. Protect slavery in all the western territories (Southern Position).

• Zachary Taylor's proposed decision was to allow California and New Mexico to enter the Union using popular sovereignty.
• Both territories decided against slavery, but southern states in the Senate refused to admit them.
• Other issues included the border dispute between Texas and New Mexico, slavery and the slave trade in Washington D.C., the need for a stronger fugitive slave law, and the threat of southern secession at the Nashville Convention.

The 31st Congress and the Compromise of 1850

• The Congress was seen as the most distinguished assembly of statesmen since the Constitutional Convention.
• The Old Guard Nationalists, including Clay, Calhoun, and Thomas Benton, stood for the Union and compromise.
• The debates leading to the compromise lasted from January to September.
• New Guard Sectionalists like Stephen Douglas, Jeff Davis, Salmon Chase, and William Seward favored their section over the Union.

Henry Clay’s Proposal

• Delivered in a two-day speech on Feb 4-5, 1850, including:
  • California would be admitted as a free state.
  • Utah and New Mexico would be open to popular sovereignty.
  • Disputed land between Texas and New Mexico would go to New Mexico, with Texas receiving $10 million$.
  • A tougher Fugitive Slave Law would be enacted.
  • Slavery would be allowed to continue in Washington D.C.
  • The slave trade in D.C. would end.
  • Congress could not control the interstate slave trade.

Calhoun’s Response

• Delivered on March 4, 1850, by Senator James Mason of Virginia, as Calhoun was dying of tuberculosis.
  • He denounced the aggression of the North.
  • He predicted the dissolution of the Union if the North was not stopped.
  • He viewed the compromise as a betrayal of the South.
• His proposed solution included:
  • Stopping anti-slavery agitation in the North.
  • Enforcing the Fugitive Slave Law.
  • Ensuring equal rights for the South in all territories.
  • Granting political equality with two presidents, one from the North and one from the South.
• Calhoun died on March 31, 1850, with his last words being, "The South, the South, Lord knows what will become of her."

Daniel Webster’s Proposal

• Webster’s "7th of March Speech" was his finest effort, advocating for the preservation of the Union.
• He appealed for the Union and compromise, denied Calhoun's charges, and tried to make the compromise acceptable to the North.
• He denounced extremists on both sides.
• Abolitionists felt betrayed by Webster.

Developments Favoring Compromise

• Including the Nashville Convention, pressure from Northern businessmen, and public sentiment.
• The death of President Taylor and the succession of Millard Fillmore to the presidency also facilitated compromise.

Significance of the 1850 Compromise

• Implications for Senate balance and the status of Minnesota, Oregon, Utah, and New Mexico.
• Included the Fugitive Slave Law.
• Caused sectional divisions.
• Brought a temporary calm until 1854.

The Irrepressible Conflict

• The Compromise of 1850 did not resolve the underlying issues, leaving both Northerners and Southerners partially satisfied.
• Fundamental causes of the sectional conflict included:
  • The South being a permanent minority.
  • The tariff.
  • Panic of 1857.
  • Federal subsidies.
  • Immigration.
  • Economic dependence on the North (40 Bale Theory).
  • A homestead law.
  • The anti-slavery movement.
  • Breakdown of enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Law.
  • New political leadership.
  • The issue of slavery in the territories and the publication of "Uncle Tom’s Cabin"

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854)

• Significance: Revived the slavery expansion issue.
• Purpose: To organize the territories of Kansas and Nebraska by opening both to popular sovereignty.
• Douglas’ Explanation:
  • The Missouri Compromise was no longer applicable.
  • Popular Sovereignty was the most democratic method.
  • Kept Congress from legislating the issue of slavery.

Not explained by Douglas!

• Douglas wanted to become President and needed Southern support.
• He was a champion of railroad interests, advocating for a transcontinental railroad with an eastern terminus in Chicago.
• Douglas had large land holdings in Chicago, and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill favored a northern route for the railroad.

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill's Role in the Sectional Conflict

• Was Douglas to blame for increasing tensions?
• Proved that the Compromise of 1850 was not the end to sectional division as previously hoped.
• Resulted in a strong reaction from the South.

Kansas-Nebraska Bill: Political Consequences

• Whigs: Dissolved.
• Southern Democrats: Gained influence.
• Northern Democrats: Suffered losses.
• Congress: Became more divided.
• Inspired the Republican party:
  • With Henry Clay and Daniel Webster now dead, the Whig party dissolved, and Free Soilers, anti-slavery Whigs, and anti-Douglas Northern Democrats joined together to form the Republican party, a purely sectional party.
  • Supported high tariffs, a homestead law, no slavery in the western territories, promoted industry, and internal improvements.
  • Almost elected Fremont president in 1856.

Slavery as a Sectional Issue

• Reformers' view: Slavery was morally wrong.
• Objective: To abolish slavery.
• Most Northerners: Opposed the expansion of slavery.
• Southerners: Defended slavery as a way of life.

Slavery, Politics, and the Constitution

• Ignoring the issue of slavery to avoid conflict.
• Slavery became a central political issue.
• Antislavery parties emerged before 1856.

Slavery as a Sectional Issue: The Abolitionist Influence

• 1840’s: Abolitionist movement gained momentum.
• 1850’s: Abolitionist activity increased.
• Abolitionists were always a minority.
• Lincoln’s view: Determined to stop its spread.