Medical Terminology Made Easy

Fundamentals of Medical Terminology

Root word: Indicates the primary meaning of the word such as “cardi” means heart and “derma” means skin.

Prefix: A syllable placed at the beginning of the word to modify its meaning. Foe example, “hyper” means excessive and “hypo” means under/below such as “hypoglycemia” (low blood sugar)

Suffix: Suffixes are added at the end of root words to denote the type of condition, disease process, or procedure. For instance, “-itis” indicates inflammation.

Prefixes modify the meaning of root words by providing additional context such as location, time, number, or condition.

Some Common Prefixes

• anti-: against (antibacterial)

• brady-: slow (bradycardia)

• hyper-: over/excessive (hypertension)

• hypo-: under/below (hypoglycemia)

• inter-: between (intercostal)

• intra-: within (intravenous)

• poly-: within (polyuria)

• post-: after (postoperative)

• pre-: before (prenatal)

• tachy-: fast (tachycardia)

Suffixes describe pathology (the study of the disease), symptoms, surgical procedures, diagnostic procedures, and parts of speech.

Some Common Suffixes

• -algia: pain (neuralgia)

• -ectomy: surgical removal (appendectomy)

• -itis: inflammation (arthitis)

• -ology: study of (cardiology)

• -oma: tumor (melanoma)

• -osis: abnormal condition (cyanosis)

• -pathy: disease (neuropathy)

• -plasty: surgical repair (rhinoplasty)

• -scopy: visual examination (colonoscopy)

• -tomy: cutting into (laparotomy)

Root words often derive from Greek or Latin convey the central meaning of a medical term, typically indicating a body part or system involved, root words can also specify a particular condition or disease.

Some common root words:

• cardi-: heart (cardiology)

• derm-: skin (dermatology)

• gastro-: stomach (gastroenterology)

• hemat-: blood (hematology)

• neuro-: nerve (neurology)

• osteo-: bone (osteoporosis)

• pulmo-: lung (pulmonology)

• ren-: kidney (renal)

• vasc-: vessel (vascular)

Common Abbreviations and Their Meanings

• BP: Blood pressure

• CBC: Complete blood count

• CXR: Chest X-ray

• ECG/EKG: Electrocardiogram

• HR: Heart rate

• IV: Intravenous

• MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging

• PRN: As needed (from latin “pro re nata)

• QID: Four times a day (from latin “quater in die)

• Rx: Prescription or treatment

Body Systems Overview

The Skeletal System

The skeletal system, the body’s structural backbone, plays pivotal roles beyond just providing shape and support. It safeguards vital organs, facilitates movement by serving as attachment points for muscles, stores minerals, and houses the bone marrow, where blood cells are produced.

• Bones and Joints: Knowing the specific names of bones (e.g. femur, tibia, humerus) and types of joints (e.g. ball-and-socket, hinge) is fundamental

• Bone Structure: Terms like “periosteum” (the outer layer of bone) and “medullary cavity” (the central cavity of bone shafts) describe the anatomy of bones

• Skeletal Conditions: Understanding conditions such as “osteoporosis” (a condition that weakens bones), “arthritis” (inflammation of one or more joints), and “scoliosis” (a sideways curvature of the spine) is crucial for diagnosing and discussing skeletal health systems

Terminology Related to the Skeletal System

Root Words: Descriptions and Meanings

• Arthro-: This prefix is related to joints, which are the connections in between bones. Examples include “arthritis” for joint inflammation and "arthroscopy” for examining joint health

• Carpo-: Indicates the wrist bones, with “carpal” referring to the wrist’s eight bones and “carpal tunnel syndrome” describing a condition from median nerve pressure in the wrist

• Chondro-: Concerns cartilage, the flexible tissue at bone ends in joints. “Chondritis” and “chondroplasty” refer to cartilage inflammation and repair, respectively.

• Costo-: Applies to the ribs, where “costectomy” means rib removal surgery, and “costochondritis” describes chest pain from rib cartilage inflammation

• Cranio-: Pertains to the skull, as seen in “craniotomy” for skull-opening surgery and “craniosynostosis”, a premature skull suture fusion in infants

• Femoro-: Denotes the femur or thigh bone, with “femoral” relating to anything concerning the femur, like the “femoral artery”

• Fibulo-: Refers to the fibula or calf bone. “Fibular” and “fibulocalcaneal” relate to the fibula and the interaction between the fibula and the heel bone

• Humero-: Concerns the humerus, the upper arm bone. “Humeral” and “humero-radial” involve the humerus and its relation with the radius.

• Kypho-: Signifies a humpback or excessive spine curvature outward. “Kyphosis” identifies this condition, resulting from various disorders.

• Lordo-: Indicates excessive inward curvature of the lower back, with “lordosis” affecting the lumbar region’s curve

• Metacarpo-: Pertains to hand bones beyond the wrist (metacarpus), with “metacarpal” describing the five bones between the wrist and fingers

• Metatarso-: Relates to foot bones beyond the ankle (metatarsus), with “metatarsalgia” denoting ball-of-foot pain and inflammation

• Myelo-: Applies to bone marrow and spinal cord, with “myelopathy” and “osteomyelitis” referring to spinal cord pathologies and bone marrow inflammation, respectively.

• Osteo-: Relates to bone, foundational in terms like “osteoporosis” for weakened bones and “osteotomy” for bone cutting surgery

• Patello-: Concerns the kneecap, with “patellectomy” for knee cap removal surgery and “patellar” relating to the kneecap

• Pelvi-: Pertains to the pelvis, with “pelvic” referring to the pelvis region and “pelvimetry” measuring pelvis dimensions

• Phalango-: Refers to finger and toe bones (phalanges), with “phalangitis” and “phalangeal” concerning these bones’ inflammation and related issues

• Radio-: Denotes the radius, a forearm bone. “Radial” and “radio-ulnar” relate to the radius and its interaction with the ulna

• Scolio-: Means twisted or crooked, usually describing the spine’s abnormal lateral curvature. “Scoliosis” refers to this varying severity condition.

• Spondylo-: Denotes the vertebrae or backbone, with “spondylosis” and “spondylitis” referring to degenerative conditions and inflammation of the vertebrae, respectively

• Synovio-: Relates to the synovial membrane lining joint spaces for lubrication. “Synovitis” describes inflammation of this membrane, causing joint pain and swelling.

• Tarso-: Concerns the ankle or ankle bones, with “tarsal” referring to the seven ankle bones and “tarsitis” indicating inflammation of these bones

• Tibio-: Refers to the tibia or shinbone. “Tibial” and “tibiofibular” relate to the tibia and its relationship with the fibula

• Ulno-: Pertains to the ulna, another forearm bone. “Ulnar” and “ulnar deviation” concern the ulna and a hand deformity causing the outermost fingers to bend towards the ulna

Most Common Pathologies, Disorders, and Conditions

• Ankylosing Spondylitis: Inflammatory arthritis affecting the spine and large joints

• Bone Cancer (Primary): Originates in bone cells, distinct from secondary bone cancer which spreads from elsewhere

• Bone Infections (Osteomyelitis): Infections in bones, potentially spread through bloodstream or from nearby tissue

• Bursitis: Inflammation of bursae, fluid-filled sacs cushioning joints

• Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD): Genetic disorder causing muscle degeneration and weakness due to dystrophia alterations

• Fibromyalgia: Widespread pain disorder with fatigue, sleep, memory, and mood issues

• Fractures (FX): Bone breaks or cracks

• Gout: Inflammatory arthritis with painful joint attacks, due to uric acid crystallization

• Herniated Disc: Disc material between spine bones protrudes, causing pain

• Kyphosis: Excessive spine curvature, leading to hunchback

• Lupus (SLE): Autoimmune disease causing inflammation and pain throughout the body, including bones and joints

• Marfan Syndrome: Genetic disorder affecting connective tissue, leading to longer limbs and tall stature

• Osteoarthritis (OA): Joint cartilage and bone degeneration

• Osteomalacia: Bone softening, often from vitamin D deficiency

• Osteonecrosis (AVN): Bone tissue death from lack of blood supply, possibly causing bone collapse

• Osteoporosis: Condition of weak and brittle bones

• Paget’s Disease of Bone: Disruption in old bone tissue replacement with new bone tissue

• Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Long-term autoimmune disorder affecting joints

• Rickets: Disorder from vitamin D, calcium, or phosphate deficiency

• Scoliosis: Sideways spinal curvature

• Spina Bifida: Birth defect with incomplete spinal cord enclosure

• Tendonitis: Tendon inflammation or irritation, often from repetitive stress or acute injury

Most Common Procedures, Tests, and Examinations

• Arthrocentesis (Joint Aspiration): Procedure removing fluid from around a joint

• Arthroscopy: Diagnoses and treats joint issues through a minimally invasive procedure

• Biopsy: Tissue removal for microscopic disease diagnosis, such as bone cancer

• Bone Density Scan (DXA, DEXA): Measures bone mineral density using X-ray technology

• Bone Marrow Biopsy (BMB): Removes a small bone marrow sample, often from the hip, to check for blood disorders

• Bone Scan: Nuclear scan detecting bone abnormalities

• Computed Tomography (CT): Creates detailed internal images for diagnostics

• Discography: Injects dye into a spinal disc to assess back pain and diagnose spinal issues

• Electrodiagnostic Studies (EDS): Tests like NCS and EMG measuring electrical activity in muscles and nerves for neuromuscular disorder diagnosis

• Electromyography (EMG): Evaluates muscle health and nerve cells controlling them

• Functional Movement Screening (FMS): Physical tests identifying movement limitations or asymmetries to prevent injuries

• Gait Analysis: Studies human motion to identify walking abnormalities and design orthopedic treatments

• Joint Fluid Analysis: Examines synovial fluid from joints to diagnose disorders like infections and arthritis

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Radiology technique for detailed anatomy and physiological process imaging

• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan: Observes bone metabolic processes, aiding in bone infection and cancer diagnoses

• Quantitative Computed Tomography (QCT): Specialized CT measuring bone density for osteoporosis diagnosis, providing detailed images

• Skeletal Survey: X-rays of major bones to detect diseases and abnormalities such as fractures and cancers

• Total Body Photography for Mole Mapping: Dermatological procedure for patients with bone cancer, indicating potential metastasis through skin changes

• Ultrasound (sonography): Uses sound waves to create body interior images

• Vertebroplasty and Kyphoplasty: Minimally invasive procedures injecting bone cement into fractured vertebrae for pain relief and stabilization

• X-ray (Radiography): Uses X-rays for internal imaging

The Muscular System: An Overview

The muscular system, an essential component of the human body, plays a pivotal role in movement, posture, and overall health. Comprised of more than 600 muscles, this system works in harmony with the skeletal system to facilitate movement, while also contributing to vital functions such as circulation, digestion, and temperature regulation.

• Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary muscles attached to the skeleton, responsible for movement and posture

• Smooth Muscle: Involuntary muscles found in the walls of internal organs, such as the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels, controlling their movements

• Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary muscle tissue found only in the heart, enabling it to contract and pump blood throughout the body

Terminology Related to the Muscular System

Root Words: Description and Meanings

• Biceps/o- signifies a dual-headed structure, as seen in the biceps, brachii, a muscle in the upper arm with two origins

• Brachi/o- relates to the arm, leading to terms like brachialgia (arm pain) and brachioplasty (arm surgery)

• Dactyl/o- denotes fingers or toes, highlighted in dactylitis (finger/toe inflammation) and dactylogram (fingerprint)

• Delt/o- refers to the delta or triangular shape, exemplified by the deltoid muscle, which covers the shoulder and aids in arm movement

• Fibro- indicates fiber, relevant in conditions like fibrosis (connective tissue thickening) and the role of fibroblasts (collagen-producing cells)

• Gastrocnemi/o- points to the calf muscle, with the gastrocnemius being a primary lower leg muscle

• Glute/o- pertains to the buttocks, encompassing the gluteal region and muscles like the gluteus maximus

• Kinesi/o-, Kinet/o- are about movement, as seen in kinesiology (movement study) and kinetic (related to motion)

• Latissim/o- relates to breadth, such as the latissimus dorsi, a wide back muscle extending to the arms

• Leiomy/o - involves smooth muscle, leading to terms like leiomyoma (benign smooth muscle tumor) and leiomyosarcoma (malignant smooth muscle tumor)

• Muscul/o- & my/o- focus on muscle, evident in terms like muscular (pertaining to muscles), musculature (muscle system), myopathy (muscle disease), and myalgia (muscle pain)

• Pector/o- is connected to the chest, highlighted by the pectoralis major muscle and pectorexcavatum (inward-curved chest)

• Quadr/i- denotes four, as in the quadriceps, the four predominant thigh muscles

• Rhabdomy/o- indicates striated muscle, relevant in rhabdomyolysis (muscle tissue breakdown)

• Sarc/o- refers to flesh or muscle, used in sarcoma (malignant tumor in soft tissue or bone) and sarcopenia (age related muscle loss)

• Serrato/o- suggests a serrated edge, like the serratus anterior muscle along the rib cage

• Sole/o- relates to the foot’s sole, exemplified by the soleus muscle in the calf

• Sphen/o- means wedge, used for the sphenoid bone, often regarding muscle attachments

• Splen/o- signifies a band, seen in the splenius muscles of the back for vertebral support and movement

• Stern/o- involves the chest or breastbone, like the sternocleidomastoid muscle from the ear to the collarbone

• Tendin/o-, tend/o- ten/o- concerns tendons, as in tendinitis (tendon inflammation) and tendonopathy (tendon disease)

• Teres/o- indicates roundness, like the teres major and minor shoulder muscles

• Trapezi/o- refers to the trapezoid shape, like the trapezius muscle over the neck and shoulders

• Triceps/o- signifies three heads, seen in the triceps brachii of the upper arm

• Vasto/o- means vast, relating to parts of the quadriceps muscle group like the vastus lateralis, medialis, and intermedius

Most Common Pathologies, Disorders, and Conditions

• Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): A progressive disease causing the degeneration of brain and spinal cord nerve cells, leading to muscle control loss, also known as Lou Gehrig’s Disease

• Becker Muscular Dystrophy (BMD): A milder muscular dystrophy form featuring gradual leg and pelvis muscle weakness

• Compartment Syndrome: This condition occurs when increased muscle within a muscle compartment causes nerve and muscle damage and blood flow issues

• Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS): Pain and stiffness in muscles that appear after unfamiliar or intense exercise

• Dermatomyositis: Characterized by muscle inflammation and weakness, this condition also presents a distinctive skin rash

• Fasciitis: Inflammation of the fascia, the tissue encasing muscles, nerves, and blood vessels, with plantar fasciitis being the most common type affecting the foot’s underside

• Fibromyalgia: A chronic condition causing widespread pain, sleep disturbances, fatigue, and often psychological stress, with heightened pain sensitivity in sufferers

• Frozen Shoulder (Adhesive Capsulitis): This condition is marked by painful shoulder joint stiffness, resulting in motion loss

• Hypertonia: Increased muscle tone leading to stiffness and resistance to movement, often seen in cerebral palsy and stroke survivors

• Hypotonia: Reduced muscle tone affecting movement and posture, indicative of underlying conditions

• Lockjaw (Tetanus): A severe bacterial infection causing muscle stiffness, especially in the jaw, due to muscle contractions

• McArdle’s Disease: A metabolic condition affecting muscle, causing exercise intolerance, weakness, and scamps, stemming from a myophosphorylase enzyme deficiency

• Mitochondrial Myopathies (MM): Diseases caused by mitochondrial damage, leading to muscle weakness and fatigue among other symptoms

• Muscle Atrophy: Muscle mass reduction due to disuse, disease, or injury, resulting in weakness and decreased mobility

• Muscular Dystrophy (MD): Genetic disorders causing skeletal muscle degeneration and weakness, with severity and affected muscles varying by type

• Muscular Sarcoidosis: An inflammatory disease affecting various organs, including muscles, leading to swollen red tissue patches or granulomas

• Myasthenia Gravis (MG): An autoimmune disorder disrupting nerve-muscle communication, resulting in muscle weakness and fatigue

• Myositis Ossificans: The formation of bone tissue inside muscle or soft tissue following injury, usually in the arm or leg’s large muscles

• Periodic Paralysis: Rare disorders causing temporary weakness or paralysis triggered by factors like diet, stress, or exercise

• Piriformis Syndrome: A disorder where the piriformis muscle compresses the sciatic nerve, causing buttock pain, tingling, and numbness

• Polymyositis: An inflammatory condition leading to symmetrical muscle weakness, making activities like climbing stairs and lifting difficult

• Rhabdomyolysis: A condition resulting from muscle injury that leads to muscle fiber death and potential kidney damage due to released muscle contents

• Rotator Cuff Tear: A tear in one or more shoulder rotator cuff tendons, causing pain and movement restriction

• Sarcopenia: The loss of muscle mass, strength, and function with age, increasing disability risk in the elderly

• Spasms (Muscle cramps): Involuntary muscle contractions that can be painful and disrupt function

• Sprains and Strains: Sprains involve ligament tears, and strains involve muscle or tendon tears, both resulting from physical activity and leading to pain, swelling, and mobility issues

• Tendinitis (Tendonitis): Tendon inflammation or irritation, often due to repetitive impacts or sudden injuries

• Tendinopathy: Describes tendon degeneration, characterized by pain, swelling, and reduced muscle-tendon unit performance

Most Common Procedures, Tests, and Examinations

• Autonomic Testing: This test assesses the autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary muscles, to identify disorders affecting muscle function through autonomic dysregulation

• Compartment Pressure Measurement: Determines pressure within muscle compartments to diagnose compartment syndrome, where high pressure indicates the risk of muscle and nerve damage requiring immediate action

• Creatine Kinase (CK) Test: Measures creatine kinase levels in the blood, where high CK indicates muscle damage, associated with conditions like rhabdomyolysis or muscular dystrophy

• Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA): Originally for bone density, DEXA scans also evaluate body composition, including muscle mass, by differentiating between bone, fat, and muscle tissue

• Dynamic Muscle Testing (DMT): Tests muscle function and fatigue during active movement, useful for assessing muscle endurance and recovery, especially in athletes or rehabilitation patients

• Electromyography (EMG): Diagnoses muscle and motor neuron health by revealing nerve dysfunction, muscle issues, or signal transmission problems between nerves and muscles

• Functional MRI (fMRI) of the Brain: Mainly for brain imaging, fMRI can also explore muscle control and coordination by showing how specific activities stimulate muscles

• Isokinetic Muscle Testing: Evaluates muscle strength and function during controlled movements, measuring muscle contraction force under various scenarios

• Isometric Strength Testing: Measures muscle strength without length change, often with a dynamometer, critical for assessing muscle function and designing rehab programs

• Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) Test: Indicates muscle damage by measuring blood’s lactate dehydrogenase levels, aiding in assessing damage extent and recovery

• Magnetic Resonance Imagining (MRI): Creates detailed images of organs and tissues, including muscles, to detect structural abnormalities, inflammation, or tumors in muscle tissue

• Muscle Biopsy: Removes and examines a small muscle tissue sample under a microscope to diagnose muscle affecting diseases like muscular dystrophy or polymyositis

• Muscle Strength Testing: Measures various muscle groups’ strength, either manually or with equipment, to objectively evaluate muscle power

• Muscle Ultrasound: A non-invasive imaging test that uses sound waves to detect muscle abnormalities, such as tears or atrophy, offering quick and magnetic field-free results

• Myoglobin Test: Measures blood myoglobin levels, a muscle cell protein that releases into the blood after muscle injury, with high levels indicating muscle damage

• Nerve Conduction Study (NCS): Assess electrical signal speed and efficiency in nerves, helping to identify nerve damage that may affect muscle health

• Pyruvate Kinase (PK) Test: Measures blood pyruvate kinase enzyme activity, with reduced activity suggesting potential metabolic muscle diseases by impacting energy reduction

• Repetitive Nerve Stimulation (RNS): Evaluates muscle response to continuous nerve signals, useful for diagnosing neuromuscular junction disorders like myasthenia gravis by observing muscle response decline

• Single Fiber Electromyography (SFEMG): A precise EMG form measuring individual muscle fibers’ electrical activity, effective in diagnosing muscle fiber coordination disorders like myasthenia gravis

• Spinal and Neural Function Tests: Includes tests like spinal tap and nerve biopsy to diagnose nerve-related conditions impacting muscle function

• Ultrasound Imaging: Utilizes sound waves for imaging muscles, tendons, and ligaments, helping to visualize soft tissue structures and pathological changes

• Whole-Body Magnetic Resonance Imagining (WB-MRI): Offers an extensive body scan to identify systemic muscle diseases or track the spread of muscular infections or malignancies

The Cardiovascular System: Circulating Life

The cardiovascular system, an intricate network of the heart, blood vessels, and blood, serves as the lifeline of the human body. Its primary function is to circulate oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and other essential substances to various tissues and organs, while also facilitating the removal or metabolic wastes.

• Heart anatomy and Function: Terms like “myocardium” (heart muscle), “atria” (the heart’s upper chambers), and “ventricles” (the heart’s lower chambers) are fundamental

• Blood Vessels: Understanding the differences between “arteries” (vessels that carry blood away from the heart), “veins” (vessels that return blood to the heart), and “capillaries” (tiny vessels where substance exchange occurs” is crucial

• Cardiovascular Conditions: Mastery of terms related to conditions such as “hypertension” (high blood pressure), “myocardial infarction” (heart attack), and “aneurysm” (a weakened area of a blood vessel that bulges) is essential for diagnosing and discussing cardiovascular health

Terminology Related to the Cardiovascular System

Root Words: Descriptions and Meanings

• aneurysm/o-: Associated with aneurysms; for instance, aneurysmectomy involves removing an aneurysm surgically

• angi/o-: Concerns blood vessels; angiography is the process of imagining blood vessels for detecting irregularities

• arteri/o-: Related to arteries; arteriosclerosis denotes the hardening of arteries

• atri/o-: Concerns the atrium, a heart’s upper chamber, atrial fibrillation is a condition of irregular and often fast heart rate that starts in the atria

• brady-: Signifies slowness; bradycardia means an unusually slow heart rate

• cardi/o-: Pertains to the heart; cardiology is the medical field focusing on health health and diseases

• coron/o-: Associated with the coronary vessels of the heart; coronary artery disease involves the narrowing of heart arteries, leading to reduced heart blood flow

• cyan/o-: Indicates blue; cyanosis refers to bluish skin discoloration due to poor blood circulation or inadequate oxygenation

• ech/o-: Relates to sound; echocardiography employs sound waves to examine heart activity

• electr/o-: Pertains to electrical activity, commonly in heart assessments; electrocardiogram (ECG) records the hearts electrical activity

• endarteri/o-: Concerns the inner artery lining; endarterectomy is the surgical removal or arterial plaque

• fibro-: Refers to fibers; fibrosis is the connective tissue’s thickening and scarring, usually following an injury

• hem/o-, hemat/o-: Related to blood; hemorrhage involves excessive bleeding

• ischi/o-: Pertains to restriction; ischemia denotes an organ’s insufficient blood supply, particularly in the heart muscles

• kinesi/o-, kinet/o-: Concerns movement, kinesiology studies human movement

• lymph/o-: Relates to lymph or the lymphatic system; lymphedema is swelling from accumulated lymphatic fluid

• my/o-: Pertains to muscle, especially heart muscle; myocardium is the heart’s muscle tissue

• pericardi/o-: Associated with the pericardium, the heart’s protective sac; pericarditis is the pericardium’s inflammation

• pharmac/o-: Concerns drugs or medicine; pharmacotherapy is the treatment of diseases through medication

• phleb/o-: Relates to veins; phlebitis is vein inflammation

• pulmon/o-: Pertains to the lungs; pulmonary hypertension is high blood pressure in the lung arteries

• sarc/o-: Indicates flesh; sarcoma is a cancer type originating from connective tissue

• sept/o-: Concerns a septum or wall dividing heart chambers; septal defect is a heart defect involving the septum

• sino-: Relates to the sinus node; sinus rhythm is the normal heart rhythm initiated by the sinoatrial node

• sphygm/o-: Pertains to the pulse; sphygmomanometer measures blood pressure

• steth/o-: Relates to the chest, stethoscope is used to listen to heart and lung sounds

• tachy-: Signifies fastness; tachycardia means an abnormally fast heart rate

• therm/o-: Concerns heat, thermolysis is tissue destruction using heat

• thromb/o-: Pertains to blood clots; thrombolysis is the breakdown of blood clots

• vas/o-: Relates to blood vessels; vasodilation is the widening of blood vessels

• vascul/o-: Concerns blood vessels; vasculitis is the inflammation of blood vessels

• ventricul/o-: Pertains to the ventricles, the heart’s lower chambers; ventricular fibrillation involves rapid and ineffective heartbeats

Most Common Pathologies, Disorders, and Conditions

• Aneurysm: A blood vessel wall bulge that can burst, causing dangerous bleeding

• Arrhythmias: Conditions with irregular heart rhythms, including fast (tachycardia) and slow (bradycardia) heartbeats

• Atherosclerosis (AS): Artery hardening and narrowing due to plaque buildup, limiting blood flow

• Atrial Fibrillation (AFib): A common severe arrythmia with fast and irregular heartbeats in the atria

• Atrial Septal Defect (ASD): A birth defect allowing blood flow between the heart’s atria due to a septum hole

• Broken Heart Syndrome: Temporary heart weakness from extreme stress, also known as Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy

• Buerger’s Disease: Rare inflammation and clotting in limb’s blood vessels, also called Thromboangiitis Obliterans

• Cardiac Tamponade: Critical fluid buildup in the heart’s sac, reducing heart function

• Coartctation of the Aorta (CoA): A congenital narrowing of the aorta, causing high blood pressure and heart damage

• Congenital Heart Defects (CHD): Birth-present heart structural issues affecting function

• Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): Heart disease from narrowed coronary arteries due to atherosclerosis

• Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT): A deep vein clot, risky if it moves to the lungs (pulmonary embolism)

• Endocarditis: Infection of the heart’s inner lining or valves, typically by bloodstream bacteria

• Heart Failure (HF): The heart’s inadequate blood pumping, causing breathlessness, fatigue, and swelling

• Hypertension (HTN): High blood pressure, raising heart disease and stroke risks

• Hyperlipidemia: High blood fat levels, contributing to atherosclerosis and heart disease risk

• Hypotension: Dangerously low blood pressure, leading to dizziness and fainting

• Ineffective Endocarditis: Heart lining or valve infection, often from bacteria or fungi

• Kawasaki Disease: A child specific acute illness causing blood vessel inflammation, including in the heart

• Long QT Syndrome (LQTS): A condition causing potentially deadly fast heartbeats

• Marfan Syndrome: A genetic disorder affecting connective tissue, potentially leading to cardiovascular issues

• Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP): The mitral valve’s improper closure, sometimes causing backward blood flow blockage

• Myocardial Infarction (MI): A heart attack caused by prolonged heart muscle blood flow blockage

• Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD): Reduced limb blood flow from narrowed arteries, causing pain and mobility problems

• Peripheral Edema: Swelling in extremities due to fluid buildup, often indicating heart failure or venous issues

• Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD): Blood vessel disorder outside the heart and brain, causing narrowing blockage, or spasms

• Pulmonary Embolism (PE): A lung artery blockage, often from a clot somewhere else in the body

• Pulmonary Hypertension (PH): High blood pressure in lung arteries, overworking the heart’s right side

• Raynaud’s Phenomenon: Cold or stress causing numbness and coldness in fingers and toes

• Rheumatic Heart Disease: Heart valve damage from rheumatic fever, following strep throat or scarlet fever

• Stroke: Brain tissue damage from disrupted blood supply, leading to oxygen and nutrient deprivation

• Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT): Abruptly fast but regular heartbeats, originating above the ventricles

• Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy: Stress-induced temporary heart weakness, also known as Broken Heart Syndrome

• Thromboangiitis Obliterans: Rare limbs’ blood vessel inflammation and clotting, also known as Buerger’s Disease

• Valvular Heart Disease: Damage or defects in heart valves, affecting blood flow

• Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD): A congenital defect with a ventricular septum hole, allowing incorrect blood flow.

Most Common Procedures, Tests, and Examinations

• Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring: Tracks blood pressure for 24 hours to evaluate hypertension management

• Cardiac Catheterization: A procedure to diagnose and address heart issues by examining heart function and identifying blockages

• Cardiac CT for Calcium Scoring: Identifies arterial calcium deposits to evaluate coronary artery disease risk

• Cardiac MRI: Provides detailed images of heart structure and function, useful for assessing heart defects and damage

• CT Angiography: CT imagining technique using contrast to visualize the heart’s blood vessels

• Coronary Angiography: X-ray imagining to view the heart’s blood vessels, identifying blockages

• Doppler Ultrasound: Utilizes ultrasound to measure blood flow and pressure

• Echocardiogram: Heart ultrasound providing detailed images of heart structure and functionality

• Echocardiographic Stress Test: Combines an electrocardiogram with stress testing to examine heart function under stress

• Electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG): Records the heart’s electrical activity, useful for detecting heart issues

• Electrophysiological Study (EPS): Invasive test for diagnosing specific arrythmias

• Endothelial Function Test: Evaluates the health of blood vessel linings, impacting vascular heath

• Event Monitor: Portable device for extended heart rhythm monitoring

• Exercise Stress Test: Assess heart response to physical activity, identifying circulatory problems

• Fractional Flow Reserve (FFR): Measures pressure differences in coronary arteries to evaluate lesion significance

• Heart Biopsy: Removes a small heart tissue sample for disease diagnosis

• Holter Monitor: Records heart electrical activity over 24-48 hours, detecting arrythmias

• Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS): Inside-the-vessel ultrasound to examine plaque and vessel dimensions

• Loop Recorder Implantation: Implants a device to record heart activity for up to three years, identifying rhythm abnormalities

• Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA): MRI technique for blood vessel imaging

• MRI of the Heart: Offers detailed images for evaluating heart structure, function, and damage

• Myocardial Biopsy: Extracts heart muscle tissue for diagnosing heart diseases

• Myocardial Perfusion Imagining (MPI): Nuclear imagining test showing blood flow to the heart during rest and exercise

• Nuclear Stress Test: Merges stress testing with nuclear imagining to assess heart blood flow under various conditions

• PET Scan of the Heart: Nuclear test visualizing heart muscle blood flow

• Pulse Oximetry: Non-invasive blood oxygen saturation monitoring

• Signal-Averaged-Electrocardiogram (SAECG): Advanced ECG detecting minor abnormalities indicating arrythmia risks

• Tilt Table Test: Diagnoses unexplained fainting causes by stimulating posture changes

• Transesophageal Echocardiogram (TEE): Esophagus-inserted ultrasound probe providing close heart structure images

• Treadmill Stress Test: Monitors heart during treadmill exercise, identifying cardiovascular issues

• Vascular Ultrasound: Evaluates the circulatory system using sound waves, detecting arterial and venous blockages

• Venous Ultrasound: Focuses mostly veins, mainly in legs, to identify clots of valve issues

• Wearable Cardioverter Defibrillators (WCD): Monitors heart rhythm and can automatically shock to correct life-threatening arrhythmias

Mastering Respiratory System Terminology: Breathing Easy

The respiratory system, essential for gas exchange, allows for the inhalation of oxygen ad the exhalation of carbon dioxide. It consists of the lungs, airways, and other structures involved in the process of breathing.

• Airways and Lungs: Recognizing terms like “bronchi” (the main passageways into the lungs) and “alveoli” (tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs) is fundamental

• Respiratory Function: Terms like “respiration” (the process of breathing), “ventilation” (the movement of air in and out of the lungs), and “diffusion” (the movement of gases across cell membranes) are key to understanding how we breathe

• Pulmonary Conditions: Understanding conditions such as “asthma” (a chronic condition that narrows and inflames the airways), “chronic obstructive pulmonary disease” (a group of lung conditions that cause breathing difficulties), and “pneumonia” (an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs) is crucial to diagnosing and discussing respiratory health issues

Terminology Related to the Respiratory System

Root Words: Descriptions and Meanings

• aer/o-: Pertains to air; “aerosol” for particles suspended in the air

• alveol/o-: Refers to the alveoli; “alveolitis” denotes inflammation of the alveoli

• apnea-: Absence of breathing; “sleep apnea” for a disorder characterized by pauses in breathing during sleep

• atel/o-: Incomplete, “atelectasis” for incomplete expansion or collapse of the lung

• brady-: slow; “bradypnea” for abnormally slow breathing

• bronch/o-: pertains to the bronchi; “bronchitis” is the inflammation of the bronchi

• bronchiol/o-: refers to the bronchioles; “bronchiolitis” for inflammation of the bronchioles

• capn/o-: Pertains to carbon dioxide; “hypercapnia” for excessive carbon dioxide in the bloodstream

• conio-: Dust; “pneumoconiosis” for any lung disease caused by dust

• cyan/o-: Pertains to blue; “cyanosis” for a bluish discoloration of the skin due to a lack of oxygen

• diaphragmat/o-: Refers to the diaphragm; “diaphragmatic” relating to the diaphragm

• dys-: bad, difficult, or painful; “dyspnea” for difficult or labored breathing

• epiglott/o-: Pertains to the epiglottis; “epiglottitis” for inflammation of the epiglottis

• laryng/o-: Pertains to the larynx; “laryngoscope” for a device to examine the larynx

• lob/o-: refers to a lobe of the lung; “lobectomy” for surgical removal of a lobe of the lung

• muc/o-: relates to mucus; “mucolytic” for an agent that dissolves thick mucus

• nas/o-: pertains to the nose; “nasal” for relating to the nose

• orth/o-: straight or correct; “orthopnea” for difficulty breathing except in upright position

• ox/o-: Relates to oxygen; “hypoxemia” means deficient oxygen in the blood

• pharyng/o-: relates to the pharynx; “pharyngitis” for inflammation of the pleura

• pleur/o-: pertains to the pleura; “pleurisy” for inflammation of the pleura

• pneum/o-: Relates to the lungs or air; “pneumonia” and “pneumothorax” for the presence of air or gas in the cavity between the lung and chest wall

• pulmon/o-: Another root for lungs; “pulmonary” pertaining to the lungs

• rhin/o-: Also relates to the nose; “rhinitis” for inflammation of nasal mucous membrane

• sarc/o-: Refers to flesh; used in terms such as sarcoma, a type of cancer that arises from connective tissue

• sept/o-: pertains to a septum or wall; “septal defect” for a heart defect involving the septum

• sinus/o-: Pertains to sinuses; “sinusitis” for inflammation of the sinuses

• sputum: Refers to the substance expelled from the respiratory passages; “sputum culture” for a test to detect lung infections

• spir/o-: Signifies breathing; “respiration” for the act of inhaling and exhaling

• tachy-: Fast; “tachypnea” for rapid breathing

• thorac/o-: Refers to the chest; “thoracotomy” for a surgical incision into the chest wall

• trach/o-: pertains to the trachea; “tracheotomy” for a surgical procedure to create an opening in the trachea

• tubercul/o-: Pertains to tuberculosis; “tuberculoma” for a nodule caused by tuberculosis

• tussi-: Relates to cough; “antitussive” for a medication that suppresses coughing

Most Common Pathologies, Disorders, and Conditions

• Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS): Severe lung inflammation causing rapid breathing difficulties.

• Asbestosis: Lung scarring from inhaling asbestos particles, leading to breathing issues

• Asthma: Lung condition causing bronchial spasms and breathing difficulties

• Bronchiectasis: Permanent airway enlargement causing chronic infections and blockages

• Bronchiolitis: Inflammatory reaction in infants’ bronchials, typically from viral infections

• Bronchitis: Inflammation of the bronchial tube linings, affecting air movement to the lungs

• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD): Lung diseases marked by airflow blockage and breathing difficulty

• Cystic Fibrosis (CF): Genetic disorder causing thick mucus in the lungs, leading to infection

• Emphysema: Progressive lung disease causing breathlessness from alveoli over-inflation

• Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS): Severe respiratory condition from hantavirus exposure through rodents

• Histoplasmosis: Lung infection from inhaling fungal spores found in bird and bat droppings

• Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis (HP): Allergic lung condition from inhaling various organic particles

• Influenza (Flu): Respiratory virus causing severe symptoms, especially in high risk groups

• Interstitial Lung Disease (ILD): Diseases causing lung tissue scarring, affecting oxygen transfer

• Laryngitis: Larynx inflammation causing voice changes, often from irritation or infection

• Legionnaire’s Disease: Severe pneumonia from Legionella bacteria in contaminated water

• Lung Cancer: Cancer starting in the lungs, often linked to smoking and carcinogen exposure

• Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM): Rare disease in women causing smooth muscle cell proliferation, affecting breathing

• Mesothelioma: Aggressive cancer affecting lung lining, primarily due to asbestos exposure

• Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS): Coronavirus causing severe respiratory illness

• Occupational Lung Diseases: Conditions from work-related dust, chemical, and protein exposure

• Pertussis (Whooping Cough): Contagious infection causing severe coughing fits

• Pleural Effusion: Fluid accumulation around the lungs, often from other diseases

• Pneumonia: Lung air sac infection, potentially filling them with fluid or puss

• Pneumothorax (PTX): Air in the chest cavity causing lung collapse

• Pulmonary Alveolar Proteinosis (PAP): Rare disorder with alveoli protein and lipid accumulation

• Pulmonary Edema: Excess lung fluid making breathing difficult

• Pulmonary Embolism (PE): Pulmonary artery blockage, usually from blood clots

• Pulmonary Fibrosis: Lung tissue scarring, hindering oxygen transport

• Pulmonary Hypertension (PH): High blood pressure in lung arteries, overburdening the heart

• Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV): Virus causing severe respiratory infections in vulnerable groups

• Sarcoidosis: Inflammatory disease mostly affecting the lungs with abnormal masses

• Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS): Deadly respiratory illness from a coronavirus

• Silicosis: Lung fibrosis from inhaling silica dust, affecting workers in specific industries

• Sleep Apnea: Breathing pauses or shallow breathing during sleep

• Tuberculosis (TB): Serious bacterial lung infection

• Whooping Cough (Pertussis): Respiratory tract bacterial infection causing intense coughing

Most Common Procedures, Tests, and Examinations

• Airway Resistance Measurement (Raw): Evaluates airflow resistance in respiratory airways

• Arterial Blood Gas (ABG): Determines oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood for lung function assessment

• Bronchial Provocation Test: Tests airway sensitivity to triggers

• Bronchoscopy: Examines the airway using a broncho

• Capnography: Monitors carbon dioxide levels in exhaled air, especially during surgery or sedation

• Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing (CPET): Assesses heart and lung performance during exercise

• Chest X-ray: Images the chest to examine the heart, lungs, and surrounding area

• Computed Tomography (CT) Scan: Provides detailed internal body structures images, including the lungs

• Endobronchial Ultrasound (EBUS): Visualizes structures around the airways using an ultrasound probe via bronchoscope

• Esophagoscopy: Examines the esophagus for conditions affecting breathing

• Exhaled Breath Condensate (EBC): Analyzes exhaled air condensate for lung disease markers

• Exhaled Nitric Oxide Test (eNO): Measures nitric oxide in breath as an inflammation marker in the lungs

• Exercise Stress Test: Measures the heart and lungs’ response to exercise

• Fractional Exhaled Nitric Oxide Test (FeNO): Diagnoses asthma by measuring breath nitric oxide levels

• High-Resolution Computed Tomography (HRCT): Provides detailed lung images to diagnose specific diseases

• Home Oxygen Use Assessment: Determines the need for supplemental oxygen

• Hypersensitivity Skin Testing: Identifies allergies that could cause respiratory symptoms

• Immunologic Tests: Assess immune responses in the respiratory system

• Impulse Oscillometry (IOS): Measures airway resistance and reactance during normal breathing

• Induced Sputum Test: Induces sputum production for respiratory disease diagnosis

• Influenza Tests: Detect influenza virus presence

• Laryngoscopy: Visually examines the larynx

• Lung Biopsy: Collects lung tissue for disease diagnosis

• Lung Clearance Index (LCI): Assesses gas distribution in the lungs

• Lung Diffusion Capacity Test: Measures gas transfer from inhaled air to the bloodstream

• Lung Perfusion Scintigraphy: Evaluates lung blood flow through nuclear medicine

• MRI of the Chest: Creates detailed chest images using magnetic fields and radio waves

• Mediastinoscopy: Examines the chest’s upper part between the lungs

• Methacholine Challenge Test: Diagnoses asthma by assessing airway reactivity

• Nasal Endoscopy: Inspects nasal passages and sinuses

• Peak Expiratory Flow (PEF): Measures maximum airflow rate during exhalation, used in asthma management

• Phrenic Nerve Stimulation: Evaluates diaphragm-controlling nerve function

• Pleural Biopsy: Removes pleura tissue to diagnose diseases

• Positive Expiratory Pressure (PEP) Therapy Monitoring: Assesses airway clearance effectiveness in PEP therapy

• Pulmonary Angiography: Images lung blood vessels using dye

• Pulmonary Function Tests (PFTs): Measures lung air movement and gas exchange

• Pulmonary Rehabilitation Assessment: Determines rehabilitation potential and outlines therapy plans

• Pulmonary Stress Testing: Evaluates lung function under exercise to identify and manage limitations

• Quantitative Ventilation-Perfusion Scanning (VQ Scan): Provides detailed lung ventilation and blood flow assessment

• Rhinomanometry: Measures nasal airflow and obstruction

• Rigid Bronchoscopy: Treats or diagnoses airway obstructions with a rigid bronchoscope

• Signal Averaged Electrocardiogram (SAECG): Detects heart rhythm abnormalities with enhances ECG

• Sleep study (polysomnography): Diagnoses sleep disorders by monitoring body functions during sleep

The Digestive System: Unraveling Medical Terminology

The digestive system plays a critical role in breaking down food into nutrients, which the body uses for energy, growth, and cell repair. It encompasses the gastrointestinal tract, along with organs like the liver and pancreas that secrete digestive enzymes.

• Anatomy and Processes: Essential terms include “esophagus” (the tube that connects the throat to the stomach), “pancreas” (an organ that secretes enzymes), and “bile” (a fluid produced by the liver to digest fats)

• Digestive Disorders: Familiarity with conditions such as “gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)” (a chronic digestive disease where stomach acid flows back into the esophagus), “ulcerative colitis” (a chronic condition affected the colon and rectum), and “hepatitis” (inflammation of the liver)

• Diagnostic and Treatment Terms: Terms like “endoscopy” (a procedure to examine the digestive tract) and “colonoscopy” (an exam to detect changes or abnormalities in the colon and rectum)

Terminology Related to the Digestive System

Root Words: Descriptions and Meanings

• Ano-: Relates to the anus; “anorectal” pertains to the anus and rectum

• Appendico-: Relates to the appendix; “appendectomy” for surgical removal of the appendix

• Bucco-: Relates to the cheek; “buccal mucosa” for the lining of the cheeks

• Ceco-: Relates to the cecum; “cecostomy” for the surgical creation of an opening in the cecum

• Cholangio-: Pertains to bile ducts; “cholangiography” which is an imaging test used to look at the bile ducts

• Chole-: Relates to bile or gall; “cholelithasis” is the presence of gallstones

• Choledocho-: Relates to the bile duct; “choledochotomy” for the surgical incision into the bile duct

• Cholecyst-: Relates to the gallbladder; “cholecystectomy” for the surgical removal of the gall bladder

• Colo-: Relates to the colon; “colitis” for inflammation of the colon

• Dento-: Relates to teeth; “dentophobia” for the fear of dentists or dental procedures

• Duodeno-: Relates to the duodenum; duodenitis for inflammation of the duodenum

• Enter-: Relates to the intestine; enteropathy for any disease of the intestines

• Esophag-: Relates to the esophagus; “esophagitis” for inflammation of the esophagus

• Gastro-: Relates to the stomach; “gastritis” for inflammation of the stomach lining

• Gastrico-: Relates to the stomach; “gastric acid” referring to the hydrochloric acid in stomach juices

• Gingivo-: Relates to the gums; “gingivitis” for inflammation of the gums

• Hepat-: Relates to the liver; “hepatitis” for inflammation of the liver

• Ileo-: Relates to the ileum; “ileostomy” for the surgical creation of an opening in the ileum

• Jejuno-: Relates to the jejunum; “jejunoileitis” for inflammation of the jejunum and ileum

• Laparo-: Relates to the abdominal wall; “laparotomy” for a surgical incision into the abdominal cavity

• Linguo-: Relates to the tongue; “lingual nerves” for nerves serving the tongue

• Nutri-: Pertains to nutrition; “nutritional status” which assesses the adequacy of diet and nutrition in the body

• Oro-: Relates to the mouth; “oropharynx” for the part of the throat at the back of the mouth

• Pancreat-: Pertains to the pancreas; “pancreatitis” for the inflammation of the pancreas

• Pepto-, Peps-: Relates to digestion; “peptic ulcer” for an ulcer in the stomach or duodenum

• Pharyngo-: Relates to the pharynx or throat; “pharyngitis” for inflammation of the pharynx

• Procto-: Pertains to the anus or rectum; “proctologist” for a specialist in disorders of the anus or rectum

• Pyloro-: Relates to the pylorus, the opening from the stomach into the duodenum; “pyloroplasty”, a surgical procedure to widen the opening

• Recto-: Pertains to the rectum; “rectocele” for a bulging of the rectum into the vagina

• Sialo-: Relates to salvia; “sialoadenitis” for inflammation of a salivary gland

• Sigmoido-: Relates to the sigmoid colon; “sigmoidoscopy” for an examination of the sigmoid colon

• Steato-: Pertains to fat; “steatorrhea”, a condition characterized by excess fat in the feces, indicating digestive problems

Most Common Pathologies, Disorders, and Conditions

• Achalasia: Difficulty swallowing due to a disorder affecting the esophagus’s ability to move food towards the stomach

• Anal Fissure: A small tear in the tissue lining the anus or lower rectum

• Appendicitis: Inflamed appendix requiring urgent surgical removal

• Ascites: Fluid buildup in the abdomen, often related to liver disease

• Barrett’s Esophagus: Esophageal lining alteration due to stomach acid exposure, increasing cancer risk

• Biliary Colic: Pain from gallstones blocking bile flow

• Bowel Obstruction: Blockage preventing passage through intestines

• Celiac Disease: Gluten intolerance damaging the small intestine

• Cholangitis: Bile duct inflammation, usually from infection

• Colitis: Inflammation of the colon causing discomfort and diarrhea

• Colon Polyps: Growths on the colon or rectum lining, potentially precancerous

• Crohn’s Disease: Inflammatory bowel disease affecting any gastrointestinal tract part

• Diverticulitis: Infection or inflammation of digestive tract pouches

• Esophageal Cancer: Cancer in the esophagus, linked to smoking and acid reflux

• Esophageal Varices: Swollen veins in the esophagus from liver disease

• Esophagitis: Esophageal tissue damage from inflammation

• Gallstones (Cholelithiasis): Hardened deposits in the gallbladder

• Gastritis: Stomach lining inflammation, irritation, or erosion

• Gastroenteritis: Stomach and intestinal inflammation causing vomiting and diarrhea

• Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD): Chronic acid reflux irritating the esophagus

• Gastrointestinal Bleeding (GIB): Bleeding within the gastrointestinal tract

• Gastroparesis: Slow and stopped stomach emptying

• Hemorrhoids: Swollen anal or lower rectal veins

• Hepatitis: Liver inflammation, often viral

• Hirschsprung’s Disease: Colon nerve cell absence causing bowel movement issues

• Intestinal Ischemia: Reduced intestinal blood flow causing pain and tissue damage

• Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): Symptoms including discomfort, bloating, and irregular bowel habits.

• Jaundice: Skin and eye yellowing from high bilirubin, indicating liver problems.

• Lactose Intolerance: Inability to digest milk sugar lactose

• Liver Cirrhosis: Liver scarring and failure from long-term damage

• Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD): Fat accumulation in liver cells in those who consume minimal alcohol

• Pancreatitis: Pancreas inflammation, either acute or chronic

• Peptic Ulcer Disease (PUD): Stomach or upper intestine sores

• Portal Hypertension: High blood pressure in the liver’s portal vein system, typically from cirrhosis

• Ulcerative Colitis (UC): Chronic inflammation and ulcers in the colon and rectum

• Whipple’s Disease: Rare infection affecting the small intestine and impeding nutrient absorption

Most Common Procedures, Tests, and Examinations

• Abdominal Ultrasound: Uses sound waves to produces images of the organs and structures in the belly

• Anorectal Manometry: Measures muscle tone in the anus and rectum, helping diagnose conditions that cause constipation or fecal incontinence

• Barium Enema: An X-ray exam that can detect changes or abnormalities in the large intestine (colon)

• Barium Swallow (Esophagram): An X-ray test that checks for problems in the throat, esophagus, stomach, and small intestine using a liquid called barium for contrast

• Biofeedback for Anorectal Disorders: A technique that trains patients to control bowel movements, used in treating constipation and fecal incontinence

• Bile Duct Obstruction Tests: Various tests including blood tests, imaging, and ERCP to check for blockages in the bile ducts

• Capsule Endoscopy: A procedure involving small wireless camera to take pictures of your digestive tract

• Cholecystography (Gallbladder X-Ray): An X-ray exam that evaluates the health and function of the gallbladder

• Colonoscopy: An examination of the colon (large intestine) using a long, flexible tube to check for any abnormalities or disease

• Computed Tomography (CT) Scan of the Abdomen: A detailed imaging test that shows the organs, blood vessels, and bones in the abdominal cavity

• Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP): A procedure that combines endoscopy and X-ray to treat problems of the bile and pancreatic ducts

• Endoscopic Ultrasound (EUS): Combines endoscopy and ultrasound to obtain images of the digestive tract and surrounding tissues and organs

• Esophageal Manometry: Measures the rhythm and muscle contraction of the esophagus when swallowing

• Esophageal pH Monitoring: Tests the amount of acid in the esophagus to diagnose GERD and to see if the acid is responsible for symptoms such as cough, chest pain, or heartburn

• Fecal Immunochemical Test (FIT): Similar to FOBT, used to find hidden blood in the stool

• Fecal Occult Blood Test (FOBT): Checks stool sample for hidden (occult) blood, which can indicate colon cancer or polyps

• Gastric Emptying Study: Measures how quickly food leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine

• H. pylori Testing (Helicobacter pylori): Identifies the presence of H. pylori bacteria, a major cause of ulcers

• Hepatic Function Panel (Liver Function Tests, LFTs): A blood test that measures enzymes, proteins, and substances that indicate how well the liver is functioning

• Hydrogen Breath Test: Diagnoses lactose intolerance or conditions that cause bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine

• Lactose Tolerance Test: Determines how well the body can digest lactose, a sugar found in milk and dairy products

• Liver Biopsy: A procedure where tissue samples from the liver are removed for examination under a microscope to detect liver disease

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Abdomen: Utilizes magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues in the abdomen

• Motility Testing: Assesses the movement and pressure in the GI tract to diagnose conditions affecting gastrointestinal motility (the ability of an organism, cell, or structure to move independently, using metabolic energy)

• Pancreatic Function Test: Measures the function of the pancreas in producing enzymes that aid in digestion

• Paracentesis: A procedure to remove fluid that has accumulated in the abdominal cavity (ascites), often due to cirrhosis of the liver

• Secretin Stimulation Test: Test the pancreas’ capacity to respond to the hormone secretin, helping diagnose pancreatic disorders

• Serology Test for Celiac Disease: Detects antibodies in the blood to diagnose celiac disease

• Sigmoidoscopy: A diagnostic procedure that examines the lower part of the colon (sigmoid) using a flexible viewing tube

• Stool Analysis: A test that examines the stool to diagnose conditions affecting the digestive tract

• Upper Endoscopy (Esophagogastroduodenoscopy, EGD): A procedure using a flexible tube with a camera to view the upper digestive system, including the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum

• Virtual Colonoscopy: Uses CT scans to non-invasively screen for cancer and polyps in the colon

• Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome (ZES): A disorder characterized by tumors in the pancreas or upper small intestine that leads to excessive stomach acid problems

Nervous System

The nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves, acts as the body’s control system and communication network. It regulates both voluntary and involuntary responses to internal and external stimuli.

• Neuroanatomy Terms: Key terms include “neuron” (the basic working unit of the brain, a nerve cell), “Cerebrum” (the largest part of the brain, responsible for voluntary actions), and “synapse” (the junction between two neurons)

• Neurological Disorders: Understanding conditions like “stroke” (a sudden interruption in the blood supply of the brain), “Parkinson’s Disease” (a progressive nervous system disorder that affects movement), and “epilepsy” (a central nervous system disorder in which brain activity becomes abnormal)

• Diagnostic Procedures: Terms such as “electroencephalogram (EEG)” (a test used to find problems related to the electrical activity of the brain) and “lumbar puncture” (a procedure used to collect cerebrospinal fluid)

Terminology Related to the Nervous System

Root Words: Descriptions and Meanings

• Astrocyt/o-: Related to astrocytes, brain and spinal cord glial cells; “astrocytoma” is a tumor from astrocytes

• Aut/o-: Concerns the autonomic nervous system controlling involuntary functions; “autonomic” means self-controlling body functions

• Axon/o-: About axons, nerve cell parts conducting impulses; “axonopathy” involves axon diseases

• Cerebell/o-: Involves the cerebellum, crucial for motor control; “cerebellar” is anything related to the cerebellum

• Cerebr/o-: Pertains to the cerebrum, the brain’s largest part; “cerebrovascular’ involves the cerebrum’s blood vessels

• Cran/i-: About the skull; “craniotomy” is a surgical operation to open the skull

• Dendr/o-: Relates to dendrites, neurons’ branched extensions; “dendritic” concerns dendrites

• Dys-: Prefix for difficulty, pain, dysfunctional; “dyskinesia” means impaired voluntary movement

• Encephal/o-: About the brain; “encephalitis” is brain inflammation

• Ependym/o-: Concerns ependyma, lining the central canal and ventricles; “ependymoma” is a tumor from ependyma

• Gangli/o-: Refers to ganglions, nerve cell body structures; “ganglionitis” is ganglion inflammation

• Gli/o-: About glial cells supporting the nervous system; “glioma” is a glial cell brain tumor

• Gyr/o-: Involves cerebral cortex ridges, gyri; “gyral” pertains to gyri

• Hippocamp/o-: Concerns the hippocampus, key for memory; “hippocampal” relates to the hippocampus

• Lobot/o-: About a brain lobe; “lobotomy” was a prefrontal lobe cutting surgery

• Mening/o-, Meningi/o-: Involves meninges, brain and spinal cord membranes; “meningitis” is membrane inflammation

• Myel/o-: Refers to spinal cord or bone marrow; “myelopathy” indicates spinal cord disease

• Narc/o-: About sleep or numbness; “narcolepsy” is a disorder with sudden sleep attacks

• Neur/o-: Concerns nerves of the nervous system; “neurology” is the nervous system study

• Neuroglia-: About nervous system supportive cells; “neuroglial cells” maintain homeostasis and form myelin

• Nucle/o-: Involves a nucleus or central cells, especially in the brain; “nuclear” often relates to nerve nuclei

• Olgiodendro-: Pertains to oligodendrocytes, myelin-producing glial cells; “oligodendroglioma” is a tumor from oligodendrocytes

• Phren/o-: About the diaphragm or mind; “phrenology” linked skull shape to personality traits

• Plex/o-: Concerns a plexus or nerve network; “brachial plexus” sends signals from the spinal cord to the arm

• Poli/o-: Involves the brain and spinal cord’s gray matter; “poliomyelitis” is paralyzing viral disease

• Psych/o-: Pertains to the mind; “psychosis” is a reality-disconnecting mental disorder

• Rad/o-: About radiation or the radial nerve; “radioneuropathy” is radiation caused nerve damage

• Radicul/o-: Concerns nerve roots; “radiculopathy” involves nerve root disease

• Scler/o-: Relates to hardening; “multiple sclerosis” is a nerve-covering immune attack

• Somat/o-: About the body; “somatoform disorders'“ are physical symptoms from mental illness

• Synapt/o-: Pertains to synapses, neuron junctions; “synaptic” involves synapse activity

• Syring/o-: About cavities or tubes; “syringomyelia” is a spinal cord cyst condition

• Thalam/o-: Involves the thalamus, a deep brain sensory relay; “thalamic” refers to the thalamus

• Vag/o-: Concerns the vagus nerve from the brainstem to the abdomen; “vagal” pertains to the vagus nerve

Most Common Problems, Disorders, and Conditions

• Alzheimer’s Disease: A progressive neurological disorder that causes brain cells to waste away, leading to cognitive decline and memory loss

• Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): Also known as Lou Gehrig’s disease, it’s a neurodegenerative disease that affects motor neurons, leading to muscle weakness and eventually paralysis

• Autonomic Dysreflexia: A condition in which the autonomic nervous system overreacts to stimuli, leading to severe hypertension, particularly in individuals with spinal cord injuries about the T6 level

• Bell’s Palsy: A condition causing sudden weakness in the muscles on one side of the face, typically temporary

• Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: A condition caused by pressure on the median nerve in the wrist, leading to numbness, tingling, and weakness in the hand

• Cerebral Aneurysm: The ballooning of a blood vessel in the brain, which can leak or rupture, causing bleeding into the brain (hemorrhagic stroke)

• Cerebral Palsy: A group of movement disorders that appear in early childhood, affecting muscle tone and posture due to abnormal development

• Concussion: A traumatic brain injury that affects brain function, often resulting from a blow to the head

• Dementia: A broad category of brain diseases that cause a long-term and often gradual decrease in the ability to think and remember, affecting a person’s daily functioning

• Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain, often caused by a viral infection, leading to fever, headache, confusion, and in severe cases, seizures and coma

• Epilepsy: A neurological disorder marked by sudden recurrent episodes of sensory disturbance, loss of consciousness, or convulsions, associated with abnormal electrical activity in the brain

• Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS): An autoimmune disorder where the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks the peripheral nerves, leading to weakness and numbness

• Huntington’s Disease: A genetic progressive brain disorder that causes uncontrolled movements, emotional problems, and loss of cognition

• Hydrocephalus: A condition characterized by an abnormal accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the ventricles of the brain, which can increase pressure inside the skull

• Meningitis: Inflammation of the brain and spinal cord membranes, typically caused by an infection

• Multiple Sclerosis (MS): A disease in which the immune system eats away at the protective covering of nerves, disrupting communication between the body and the brain

• Myasthenia Gravis (MG): A chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disorder that causes weakness in the skeletal muscles, which are responsible for breathing and moving parts of the body, including the arms and the legs

• Narcolepsy: A chronic sleep disorder characterized by overwhelming daytime drowsiness and sudden attacks of sleep, often accompanied by sudden loss of muscle tone (cataplexy)

• Neuralgia: Intense, typically intermittent pain along the course of a nerve, especially in the head or face

• Neuropathy: A term denoting nerve damage or dysfunction, leading to numbness, weakness, and pain, commonly in the hands and feet

• Parkinson’s Disease: A progressive nerve system disorder that affects movement, causing tremors, stiffness, and slowing of movement

• Peripheral Neuropathy: Damage to the peripheral nerves outside the brain and spinal cord, leading to weakness, numbness, and pain, usually in the hands and feet

• Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS): A condition that causes an uncontrollable urge to move the legs, typically because of discomfort

• Sciatica: Pain affecting the back, hip, and outer side of the leg, caused by compression of a spinal nerve root in the lower back

• Spina Bifidia: A birth defect where there is incomplete closing of the backbone and membranes around the spinal cord

• Spinal Cord Injury: Damage to the spinal cord that causes changes in its function, either temporarily or permanently

• Stroke: A condition where poor blood flow to the brain results in cell death, causing parts of the brain not to function properly

• Tourette Syndrome (TS): A neurological disorder characterized by repetitive, stereotyped, involuntary movements and vocalizations called tics

• Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA): Often called a mini-stroke, a temporary period of symptoms similar to those of a stroke

• Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): A form of brain injury caused by sudden damage to the brain, ranging from mild to severe

• Trigeminal Neuralgia: A chronic pain condition affecting the trigeminal nerve in the face, characterized by intense, electric shock like pain

• Vertigo: A condition where a person feels as if they or the objects around them are moving when they are not

Most Common Procedures, Tests, and Examinations

• Autonomic Testing: Evaluates the autonomic nervous system, diagnosing disorders of involuntary functions

• Biopsy of Neural Tissue: Removes brain tissue or tumor samples for microscopic disease diagnosis

• Botulinum Toxin Injections (Botox): Treats involuntary muscle contractions in conditions like dystonia

• Brainstem Auditory Evoked Response (BAER) Test: Assesses brain processing of sounds, checking for hearing loss and neurological disorders

• Carotid Ultrasound: Images the neck’s carotid arteries, checking for stroke-risk blockages

• Cerebral Angiography: Visualizes brain blood flow through injected dye, identifying blockages.

• Computed Tomography (CT) Scan: Offers clear brain images, diagnosing stroke, tumors, and injuries.

• Corticosteroid Therapy for Neuroinflammatory Disorders: Reduces nervous system inflammation in conditions like multiple sclerosis

• Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES): Delivers electric currents across the head, treating anxiety, depression, and insomnia.

• Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): Implants electrodes in the brain, regulating abnormal impulses in Parkinson’s disease

• Dopamine Transporter Imagining (DaTscan): Provides detailed brain dopamine system images, aiding Parkinson’s diagnosis

• Electroencephalography (EEG): Measure’s the brains electrical activity through scalp-attached metal discs

• Electromyography (EMG): Evaluates muscle and controlling nerve cell health by measuring muscle electrical activity

• Evoked Potentials (EP) Tests: Assesses brain electrical activity in response to stimuli, checking sensory nerves.

• Functional MRI (fMRI): Detects brain activity changes through blood flow, used in brain mapping and planning

• Intracranial Pressure Monitoring (ICP Monitoring): Measures skull pressure, guiding treatment for severe brain injuries

• Intravenous Immunoglobulin (IVIG) Therapy: Treats autoimmune and inflammatory nervous system diseases with direct vein immunoglobulins

• Lumbar Puncture (Spinal Tap): Collects cerebrospinal fluid from the lower back, diagnosing infections and neurological disorders

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Creates detailed brain and spinal cord images with magnetic fields and radio waves

• Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS): Provides a brain chemical information, diagnosing tumors, stroke, and other conditions

• Magnetoencephalography (MEG): Measures brain neuronal activity’s magnetic fields, evaluating epilepsy and tumors

• Myelography: Images the spinal canal after injecting contrast, detecting abnormalities

• Nerve Conduction Study (NCS): Assesses nerve electrical activity, detecting damage or dysfunction

• Neurocognitive Testing: Evaluates cognitive functions like memory and problem-solving to diagnose brain conditions

• Occipital Nerve Block: Injects medication near the head’s back nerves, treating headaches, including migraines

• Plasmapheresis (Plasma Exchange): Replaces blood plasma to treat autoimmune nervous system disorders

• Polysomnography (Sleep Study): Records sleep phases to diagnose sleep disorders

• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan: Shows tissue and organ function, used for brain disorder evaluation

• Responsive Neurostimulation (RNS): Implants a device in the brain to prevent seizures by monitoring and stimulating brain activity

• Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SSEP) Test: Measures brain activity after sensory nerve stimulation, assessing damage

• Stereotactic Biopsy: Removes brain tissue samples using a three-dimensional coordinate system

• Transcranial Doppler (TCD) Ultrasound: Measures major brain arteries’ blood flow using ultrasound

• Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS): Implants a device to stimulate the vagus nerve, controlling epilepsy seizures and treating depression

• Visual Evoked Potentials (VEP) Test: Detects brain electrical activity in response to visual stimuli, diagnosing visual impairments

• Wada Test: Temporarily inactivates one brain hemisphere to plan epilepsy surgery

The Endocrine System

The endocrine system consists of glands that produce hormones, which regulate metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, and mood, among other functions.

• Glands and hormones: Important terms include “thyroid gland” (which produces hormones that regulate metabolism), “insulin” (a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels), and “adrenal glands” (which produces hormones that help control heart rate, blood pressure, and other functions)

• Endocrine Disorders: Conditions like “diabetes mellitus” (a group of diseases that affect how your body uses blood sugar), “hyperthyroidism” (overactivity of the thyroid gland), and “Addison’s disease” (an adrenal gland disorder)

• Diagnostic and Treatment Terms: Familiarity with procedures like “thyroid function tests” (tests that measure the function of the thyroid) and “hormone replacement therapy” (a treatment to relieve symptoms of hormone deficiency)

Root Words: Descriptions and Meanings

• Aden/o-: Related to glands; “adenopathy” denotes gland disease

• Adren/o-, Adrenal/o-: About the adrenal glands; “adrenalectomy” is removing an adrenal gland surgically

• Andr/o-: Pertains to male or masculinity; “androgen” describes male sex hormones

• Calc/o-: About calcium; “calcemia” means calcium levels in the blood

• Cortic/o-: Concerns the cortex; “corticosteroid” denotes steroids from the adrenal cortex

• Crin/o-: Involves secretion; “endocrinology” studies hormones and the endocrine system

• Endocrin/o-: Pertains to the endocrine system, “endocrinopathy” signifies an endocrine system disorder

• Estrogen/o-: About estrogen; “estrogenic” refers to the estrogen’s actions or characteristics

• Gluc/o-, Gluco-: Related to glucose; “glucagon” is a hormone that increases blood glucose

• Glyc/o-: Pertains to sugar; “glycemia” indicates blood sugar levels

• Gonad/o-: Concerns sex glands (ovaries and testes); “gonadotropin” stimulates the gonads

• Hypophys/o-: About the pituitary gland; “hypophysectomy” is removing the pituitary gland surgically

• Insul/o-: Pertains to insulin; “insulinoma” is a pancreatic insulin-producing cell tumor

• Lact/o-: Related to milk; “lactogenic” means promoting milk production

• Melan/o-: Concerns black or dark; “melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)” affects skin pigmentation

• Natr/o-: About sodium; “hyponatremia” describes low blood sodium levels

• Oophor/o-: Pertains to the ovary; “oophorectomy” is removing one or both ovaries surgically

• Orchid/o-, Orch/o-, Orchi/o-: Concerns the testes; “orchidectomy” or “orchiectomy” is the removal of one or both testes

• Oxy-: About sharp or quick; “oxytocin” promotes childbirth and lactation through uterine contractions and milk ejection

• Pancreat/o-: Pertains to the pancreas; “pancreatitis” is pancreatic inflammation

• Parathyroid/o-: About the parathyroid glands; “parathyroidectomy” is surgically removing the parathyroid glands

• Pharmac/o-: Concerns drugs or medicine; “pharmacotherapy” is disease treatment through medication, including hormone therapies

• Pheochromocyt/o-: Relates to a pheochromocytoma, an adrenal gland tumor causing high blood pressure

• Pituitar/o-: About the pituitary gland; “pituitary adenoma” is a benign tumor of the pituitary

• Pubert/o-: Concerns puberty; “puberty” is the process leading to sexual maturity

• Somat/o-: Relates to the body; “somatotropin” or growth hormone affects body stucture

• Ster/o-: Pertains to solid; “steroids” are lipids, including endocrine-produced hormones

• Test/o-: About the testis; “testosterone” is the primary male hormone

• Thym/o-: Concerns the thymus gland; “thymectomy” is removing the thymus, often for autoimmune diseases

• Thyr/o-, Thyroid/o-: About the thyroid gland; “thyroidectomy” is the surgical removal of the thyroid

• Tropic/o-: Relates to influencing; “gonadotropin” stimulates the gonads

• Vas/o-: Pertains the vessels or ducts; “vasopressin” regulates water retention and blood pressure

Most Common Pathologies, Disorders, and Conditions

• Acromegaly: A hormonal disorder from excessive growth hormone, enlarging bones in the hands, face, and feet

• Addison’s Disease: Adrenal gland disorder causing insufficient hormone production, leading to weakness, weight loss, and low blood pressure

• Adrenal Insufficiency: Condition where adrenal glands don’t produce enough hormones, causing fatigue and weight loss

• Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH): Genetic disorders affecting adrenal hormone production, influencing growth and metabolism

• Cushing’s Syndrome: Caused by high cortisol levels for a long time, resulting in weight gain, thin skin, and high blood pressure

• Diabetes Insipidus (DI): Characterized by intense thirst and excessive urine production due to hormonal imbalances affecting kidneys

• Diabetes Mellitus (DM): Metabolic diseases with prolonged high blood sugar levels due to insulin issues

• Gigantism: Excessive growth hormone production in childhood, leading to an abnormally tall stature

• Goiter: Thyroid gland enhancement, often from iodine deficiency, causing neck swelling and possible thyroid issues

• Grave’s Disease: Autoimmune hyperthyroidism leading to goiter, eye bulging, and skin thickening

• Gynecomastia: Male breast tissue enlargement from hormonal imbalances or medication side effects

• Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis: Hypothyroidism from autoimmune thyroid inflammation and destruction

• Hyperaldosteronism: Excess aldosterone production by adrenal glands, causing high blood pressure and low potassium levels

• Hyperparathyroidism: Overactive parathyroid glands raising blood calcium levels, leading to kidney stones and osteoporosis

• Hyperthyroidism: Overactive thyroid producing too much hormone, causing weight loss, rapid heartbeat, and anxiety

• Hypoparathyroidism: Insufficient parathyroid hormone production, affecting calcium and phosphorus, causing intolerance

• Hypothyroidism: Underactive thyroid leading to hormone production, causing fatigue, weight gain, and cold intolerance

• Insulinoma: A rare pancreatic tumor overproducing insulin, leading to low blood sugar levels

• Klinefelter Syndrome: Genetic male condition with an extra X chromosome, affecting testosterone levels and fertility

• Menopause: The natural end of menstrual cycles in women’s 40s or 50s, leading to symptoms like hot flashes

• Metabolic Syndrome: A cluster of conditions increasing the risk or heart disease, stroke, and diabetes

• Osteoporosis: Bones become brittle from hormonal imbalances, increasing fracture risk

• Pheochromocytoma: Rare adrenal gland tumor causing excessive adrenaline production, leading to high blood pressure and rapid heartbeat

• Pituitary Adenoma: Usually benign tumor in the pituitary gland affecting hormone production

• Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Hormonal imbalance in women causing irregular periods, acne, and hair growth

• Thyroid Cancer: Cancer in the thyroid gland, often appearing as a nodule

• Turner Syndrome: Female chromosomal disorder leading to incomplete puberty development due to a missing or incomplete X chromosome

Most Common Procedures, Tests, and Examinations

• 24 Hour Urinary Free Cortisol Test: Diagnoses Cushing’s syndrome by measuring cortisol in 24-hour urine

• ACTH Stimulation Test: Assesses adrenal response to ACTH, useful for diagnosing Addison’s disease.

• ACTH Test: Measures ACTH in blood to evaluate pituitary and adrenal gland function

• Anti-Thyroid Antibody Test: Identifies antibodies against thyroid tissue, diagnosing autoimmune thyroid diseases

• Blood Hormone Levels: Tests various hormone levels in the blood, including thyroid, cortisol, and sex hormones

• Bone Density Scan (DEXA, DXA): Measures bone loss to diagnose osteoporosis using X-ray technology

• Calcium Blood Test: Checks blood calcium levels, aiding in diagnosing parathyroid and bone disorders

• Cortisol Level Test: Measures cortisol in blood, urine, or salvia to assess adrenal functions and diagnose related disorders

• Dynamic Function Tests: Tests endocrines response by administering substances then measuring hormone production changes

• Electrolyte Panel: Measures blood electrolytes like sodium and potassium, important for diagnosing adrenal and kidney disorders

• Fasting Blood Glucose Test: Assesses blood sugar levels after fasting to diagnose diabetes and prediabetes

• Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy of Thyroid: Collects thyroid cells through a thin needle for examination, diagnosing nodules

• Growth Hormone Tests: Evaluates growth hormone levels after stimulation or suppression substances, diagnosing abnormalities

• Hemoglobin A1c Test: Shows average blood sugar over 2-3 months, aiding in diabetes management

• Insulin and C-Peptide Tests: Measures insulin production by analyzing blood insulin and C-peptide levels

• Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT): Measures blood glucose response to sugar, diagnosing diabetes

• Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Test: Measures PTH in blood, crucial for diagnosing parathyroid diseases

• Pituitary Function Tests: Evaluates pituitary hormone production to assess gland health and function

• Prolactin Level Test: Determines blood protein levels, diagnosing pituitary disorders like prolactinomas

• Radioactive Iodine Uptake Test (RAIU): Assesses thyroid function by measuring radioactive iodine uptake, diagnosing hyperthyroidism

• Sex Hormone Testing: Measures sex hormone levels, diagnosing sexual development, reproductive health, and hormone imbalance disorders

• Thyroglobulin Test: Monitors thyroid cancer treatment and recurrence by measuring thyroglobulin levels

• Thyroid Function Tests (TFTs): Includes T4, T3, and TSH measurements, assessing thyroid gland function

• Thyroid Scans and Uptake: Nuclear medicine test evaluating thyroid function and structure with radioactive substance

• Thyroid Ultrasound: Produces thyroid images using sound waves, detecting nodules, cysts, or tumors

Urinary System

The urinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, is essential for removing waste products from the bloodstream and regulating body fluids.

• Anatomy and Function: Keys terms like “kidney” (an organ that filters blood to produce urine), “ureter” (a tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder), and “nephron” (the basic filtering unit in the kidney)

• Urinary Disorders: Understanding conditions like “urinary tract infection (UTI)” (an infection in any part of the urinary system), “renal failure” (a condition in which the kidneys lose the ability to remove waste and balance fluids), and “incontinence” (loss of bladder control)

• Diagnostic Procedures: Terms such as “urinalysis” (a test of your urine), and “cystoscopy” (a procedure to see inside the bladder)

Terminology Related to the Urinary System

Root Words: Descriptions and Meanings

• -ectasis, -ectasia: Indicates dilation; “Hydroureter” describes ureter dilation from fluid buildup

• -pexy: Denotes surgical fixation; “Nephropexy” is the surgical fixation of a dislocated kidney

• -stasis: Refers to stopping; “Urostasis” is urine retention in the bladder

• -tripsy: Involves crushing; “Lithotripsy” is a procedure to crush kidney stones

• -uria: Concerns urine conditions; “Anuria” means the absence of urine production

• Albumin/o-: about albumin; “Albuminuria” indicates albumin presence in urine, suggesting kidney disease

• Azot/o-: Relates to nitrogen; “Azotemia” is increased nitrogenous wastes in the blood, pointing to kidney issues

• Cyst/o-: Pertains to the bladder; “Cystoscopy” is the internal examination of the bladder

• Diures/o-: Involves increased urine production; “diuretic” refers to agents that promote urine output

• Dys-: Means painful or difficult; “dysuria” is difficult or painful urination

• Enures/o-: Relates to bedwetting; “enuresis” denotes involuntary urination, typically at night with children

• Glomerul/o-: About glomeruli; “glomerulonephritis” is inflammation of kidney glomeruli

• Hem/o-, Hemat/o-: Concerns blood; “hematuria” is blood in the urine

• Hydr/o-: Pertains to water; “hydronephrosis” is kidney swelling due to urine accumulation

• Kali-: Relates to potassium; “hyperkalemia” indicates elevated potassium levels in the blood

• Lith/o-: Concerns stones; “nephrolithiasis” is having kidney stones

• Meat/o-: About the meatus; “meatal stenosis” is the narrowing of the urethral opening

• Nephr/o-: Pertains to the kidney; “nephrectomy” is kidney removal

• Noct/i-: Involves night; “nocturia” is frequent urination at night

• Olig/o-: Indicates few or scanty; “oliguria” is low urine output

• Peri-: Surrounds something; “perinephric” means around the kidney

• Protein/o-: Concerns protein; “proteinuria” is excessive protein in urine

• Py/o-: Relates to pus; “pyuria” is pus in the urine, often due to infection

• Pyel/o-: About the renal pelvis; “pyelonephritis” is inflammation of the renal pelvis and kidney

• Ren/o-: Also pertains to the kidney; “renal failure” is inadequate kidney function

• Supra-: Above or over; “suprapubic” refers to the are above the pubic bone

• Ur/o-, -uria: Concerns urine; “polyuria” is excessive urine production

• Ureter/o-: About the uterus; “urethritis” is inflammation of the ureter

• Urethr/o-: Pertains to the urethra; “urethritis” is urtheral inflammation

• Urin/o-: Relates to urine, “urinary” concerns urine or urination

• Uro-: Refers to urine or urinary tract; “urology” is the study of urinary tract diseases

• Vesic/o-: About the bladder; “vesicoureteral reflux” is urine backflow from bladder to uterus

Most Common Pathologies, Disorders, and Conditions

• Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): Rapid onset kidney failure or damage, causing waste accumulation in blood

• Bladder Cancer: Cancer starting in bladder tissues, often presenting with blood in urine and frequent urination

• Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): Gradual loss of kidney function, leading to waste buildup and the need for dialysis or transplant

• Glomerulonephritis: Inflammatory conditions in the kidney’s glomeruli, potentially leading to kidney failure

• Hematuria: Blood presence in urine, a symptoms of various conditions from infections to cancer

• Hydronephrosis: Kidney swelling from urine backup, typically due to urinary tract infection

• Interstitial Cystitis (IC)/Painful Bladder Syndrome (PBS): Chronic bladder and pelvic pain without a clear cause

• Kidney Stones (Nephrolithiasis): Mineral and salt deposits in kidneys causing painful passage through urinary tract

• Nephrotic Syndrome: Kidney disorder causing excessive protein loss in urine, leading to swelling and infection risk

• Overactive Bladder (OAB): Frequent, sudden urges to urinate, leading to potential incontinence

• Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD): Genetic disease with numerous kidney cysts, risking kidney failure

• Prostate Enlargement (Benign Prostate Hyperplasia, BPH): Age-related prostate enlargement affecting urine flow in men

• Prostatitis: Prostate inflammation often resulting in painful or difficult urination

• Pyelonephritis: Kidney infection causing fever, back pain, and nausea

• Renal Artery Stenosis: Narrowed arteries to kidneys, potentially causing hypertension and kidney damage

• Renal Cell Carcinoma (RCC): The most common adult kidney cancer, starting in the proximal convoluted tubule lining

• Renal Hypertension: High blood pressure from narrowed arteries to kidneys

• Renal Tubular Acidosis (RTA): Kidney failure to acidify urine, causing blood acidosis

• Urethritis: Urethra inflammation, often from infections, causing painful urination

• Urinary Incontinence: Involuntary urine leakage due to various conditions or factors

• Urinary Retention: Inability to completely empty the bladder, needing medical intervention

• Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Infection in the urinary system, often bladder or urethra, causing pain during urination

• Urolithiasis: Stone formation in the urinary system, including kidneys, bladder, and uterus

• Vesicoureteral Reflux (VUR): Backflow of urine from bladder to ureters or kidneys, raising UTI risk

• Wilms’ Tumor: A rare pediatric kidney cancer, also called nephroblastoma

Most Common Procedures, Tests, and Examinations

• 24-Hour Urine Collection Test: Evaluates kidney function by measuring urine components over a day

• Antegrade Pyelography: Visualizes the urinary tract using dye, helpful when other tests aren’t suitable

• Biofeedback Therapy for Bladder Control: Teaches bladder muscle control through electronic monitoring

• Bladder Pressure Test (Cystomanometry): Assesses bladder functionality by measuring pressure during filling

• Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) Test: Indicates kidney function by measuring blood urea nitrogen levels

• Computed Tomography Urogram (CTU): A detailed CT scan of the urinary tract with contrast to detect abnormalities

• Creatinine Clearance Test: Gauges kidney performance by the rate of creatinine clearance from the blood

• Cystometry: Measures bladder pressure to evaluate bladder function

• Cystoscopy: Inspects the bladder and urethra using a scope for disease or blockages

• Electrolyte Panel: Assesses kidney function and fluid balance by measuring blood electrolyte levels

• Intravenous Pyelogram (IVP): X-ray exam of the urinary tract with contrast dye to visualize the organs

• Kidney Function Tests (KFTs): Measures kidney filtering capacity using BUN and serum creatinine tests

• Loopogram: Studies urinary diversions like urostomies for obstructions of leaks

• MRI of the kidneys: Detailed, X-ray free imagining of the kidneys

• Nuclear Cystogram: Uses radioactive material to assess bladder function and reflux

• Penile Doppler Ultrasound: Diagnoses erectile dysfunction by evaluating penile blood flow

• Phosphorus Blood Test: Diagnoses kidney disorders by measuring blood phosphorus

• Postvoid Residual (PVR) Measurement: Identifies urinary retention by measuring urine left after voiding

• Renal Biopsy: Extracts kidney tissue for diagnosis of kidney diseases

• Renal Scan: Uses radioactive tracers to evaluate kidney function and blood flow

• Retrograde Pyelography: X-ray exam of the upper urinary tract with direct contrast injection into the uterus

• Serum Creatinine Test: Assesses kidney health by measuring blood creatinine levels

• Ultrasound of Kidneys and Bladders: Checks for abnormalities in kidneys and bladder using sound waves

• Ureteroscopy: Examines ureters and kidneys for stones or tumors using a scope

• Urethral Pressure Profile (UPP): Diagnoses urinary incontinence by measuring urethral pressure

• Urinalysis (UA): Detects disorders like UTIs, kidney disease, and diabetes by testing urine

• Urine Culture: Detects bacteria or fungi in urine, diagnosing UTIs

• Urine Electrolytes Test: Evaluates kidney function and electrolyte balance by measuring urine electrolytes

• Urine Osmolality Test: Provides kidney’s concentrating ability by evaluating particle concentration in urine

• Urine Protein Test: Detects kidney disease by measuring urine protein levels

• Urine Specific Gravity Test: Assesses kidney function and hydration by measuring urine concentration

• Urodynamic Testing: Identifies urinary dysfunction by testing storage and release of urine

• Voiding Cystourethrogram (VCUG): X-ray study of the bladder and urethra during filling and emptying

Reproductive System

The male and female reproductive systems are designed for the production of offspring and the maintenance of reproductive health.

• Anatomy and Functions: Important terms include “ovary” (a female reproductive organ that produces eggs), “testis” (a male reproductive organ that produces sperm), and “menstruation” (the monthly shedding of the uterine lining in women)

• Reproductive Health Conditions: Understanding conditions such as “endometriosis” (a disorder in which tissue similar to the lining inside the uterus is found outside the uterus), “prostatitis” (inflammation of the prostrate gland), and “polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)” (a hormonal disorder causing enlarged ovaries with small cysts")

• Diagnostic and Treatment Terms: Familiarity with procedures like “pap smears” (a test to screen for cervical cancer) and “vasectomy” (a surgical procedure for male sterilization)

Terminology Related to the Reproductive System

Root Words: Descriptions and Meanings

• Amni/o-: Pertains to amniotic fluid; “Amniocentesis” is sampling amniotic fluid for testing

• Andr/o-: Concerns males; “andrology” deals with male reproductive health; “androgen” refers to male hormones

• Cervic/o-: Relates to the cervix; “Cervicitis” is cervical inflammation

• Clitor/o-: Pertains to the clitoris; “Clitoridectomy” is clitoral surgery, often discussed in the context of genital mutilation

• Clop/o-, vagin/o-: Concern the vagina; “colposcopy” examines and vaginal and cervical diseases, “vaginitis” is vaginal inflammation

• Embry/o-: About the embryo; “embryology” studies embryonic development

• Epididym/o-: Pertains to the epididymis; “Epididymitis” is epididymis inflammation

• Fet/o-: Involves the fetus; “fetal” refers to anything fetal-related during pregnancy

• Fimbri/o-: About fimbriae; “Fimbrioplasty” repairs fallopian tube fimbriae

• Gestat/o-: Concerns pregnancy; “gestational” refers to pregnancy related aspects

• Gonad/o-: Pertains gonads; “Gonadotropin” stimulates ovaries and testes

• Gynec/o-: Relates to women; “gynecology” is the study of women’s reproductive health

• Hormon/o-: About hormones; “hormonal” refers to hormone-related processes or issues

• Hyster/o-, Metri/o-, Uter/o-: Concerns the uterus; “Hysterectomy”, “Metritis”, and “Uterine” refer to uterus removal, inflammation, and related aspects, respectively

• Labia/o-: Pertains to the labia; “Labial” refers to the vulva’s labia

• Lact/o-: About milk; “lactation” is milk production and secretion

• Mamm/o-, Mast/o-: Concerns the breasts; “mammography” and “mastectomy” refer to breast cancer imagining and breast removal, respectively

• Men/o-: Involves menstruation; “menopause” marks menstrual cycle cessation

• Nat/i-: About birth; “neonatal” refers to the post-birth period

• Obstetr/o-: Pertains to childbirth; “Obstetrics” manages pregnancy, labor, and postpartum

• Oophor/o-, Ovari/o-: Relates to the ovaries; “Oophorectomy” and “ovarian” concern ovary removal and related aspects

• Orchid/o-, Orchi/o-, Orch/o-, Test/o-: Concerns the testes; “Orchidectomy”, “Orchiectomy”, “Testicular” pertain to testes removal and related health aspects

• Part/o-, Toc/o-: About labor; “Parturition” and “Tocography” relate to childbirth and labor contraction monitoring

• Pen/o-: Concerns the penis; “penile” refers to penis-related aspects

• Prostat/o-: Involves the prostate; “Prostatitis” is prostate inflammation

• Pubert/o-: About puberty; “puberty” is the reproductive maturation period

• Puerper/o-: Concerns the postpartum period; “puerperal” refers to post-childbirth aspects

• Salping/o-: Pertains to fallopian tubes

• Scrot/o-: About the scrotum; “Scrotitis” is scrotum inflammation

• Sperm/o-, Spermat/o-: Concerns sperm; “spermatogenesis” is sperm production, “spermatocele” is a cyst in the epididymis with sperm

• Terat/o-: Relates to birth defects; “Teratology” studies developmental abnormalities

• Vas/o-: About vessels; “vasectomy” is a sterilization procedure involving the vas deferens

• Vulv/o-: Pertains to the vulva; “Vulvodynia” is chronic vulvar pain

Most Common Pathologies, Disorders, and Conditions

• Amenorrhea: Absence of menstruation, often diagnosed after 3 missed cycles

• Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH): Enlarged prostate gland causing urinary difficulties

• Cervical Cancer: Malignancy from the cervix that can spread to other body parts

• Chlamydia: STI that may cause significant reproductive damage if not treated

• Dysmenorrhea: Painful menstruation with cramps, possibly accompanied by back pain and nausea

• Ectopic Pregnancy: A pregnancy where the embryo implants outside the uterus, often in a fallopian tube

• Endometrial Cancer: Cancer in the uterus lining, often discovered post-menopause

• Endometriosis: Disorder where the uterine lining tissue grows outside the uterus

• Erectile Dysfunction (ED): Inability to maintain an erection for sexual activity

• Fibrocystic Breast Changes: Noncancerous breast lumps causing discomfort

• Genital Herpes: STI from herpes simplex virus causing sores and discomfort

• Gonorrhea: STI affecting genitals, rectum, and throat caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae

• Gynecomastia: Male breast tissue enlargement, usually with an unknown cause

• Human Papillomavirus (HPV): STI that can lead to genital warts and cervical cancer

• Infertility: Inability to conceive after a year of trying, affecting both genders due to various causes

• Interstitial Cystitis (IC)/Painful Bladder Syndrome: Chronic bladder and pelvic pain condition

• Mastitis: Inflammation of breast tissue, sometimes infective, affecting breastfeeding women

• Menopause: The end of menstruation, confirmed after one year without periods

• Orchitis: Testicular inflammation, commonly due to infections like mumps

• Ovarian Cancer: Cancer starting in the ovaries, often undetected in early stages

• Ovarian Cysts: Often harmless sacs on the ovaries, can cause complications if large

• Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID): Infection of female reproductive organs, risking infertility

• Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Disorder with enlarged ovaries and cysts, affecting menstrual cycle and fertility

• Preeclampsia: High blood pressure during pregnancy, threatening mother and baby

• Premature Ejaculation (PE): Sexual dysfunction with early ejaculation during intercourse

• Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS): Symptoms like mood swings and irritability before menstruation

• Prostate Cancer: Cancer in the male prostate gland

• Prostatitis: Prostate inflammation causing urinary issues

• Syphilis: STI starting with a painless sore, progressing to serious complications if untreated

• Testicular Cancer: Cancer originating in the testicles

• Uterine Fibroids: Benign growths in the uterus causing heavy menstrual bleeding and pain

• Vaginitis: Vaginal inflammation with discharge and discomfort, from various causes

• Zika Virus Infection: Mosquito-borne illness that can cause birth defects when transmitted to a fetus

Most Common Procedures, Tests, and Examinations

• Amniocentesis: Sampling amniotic fluid to diagnose fetal disorders

• Biopsy: Extracting tissue for a microscopic disease diagnosis in reproductive organs

• Chlamydia: An STI that can lead to reproductive damage if not treated

• Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS): Placenta sampling for prenatal genetic testing

• Colposcopy: Examining the cervix, vagina, and vulva for signs of disease

• Endometrial Biopsy: Removing uterine lining tissue for abnormality detection

• Fertility Tests: Diagnosing infertility with hormone tests and semen analysis

• Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Test: Identifies HPV< which can lead to cervical cancer

• Hysterosalpingography (HSG): X-ray for uterus and fallopian tube evaluation in fertility tests

• Hysteroscopy: Direct observation of the cervical canal and uterine cavity

• Laparoscopy: Examines internal abdominal and pelvic organs, including reproductive structures

• Mammography: Breast X-ray to evaluate changes and screen for cancer

• Pap Smear (Papanicolaou Test): Cervical screening for cancer by examining cervical cells

• Prostate Ultrasound (Transrectal Ultrasound): Imaging of the prostate via the rectum

• Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test: Blood test for PSA levels, higher levels may indicate prostate issues

• Semen Analysis: Assesses sperm health, important for fertility evaluation

• Testicular Ultrasound: Imaging the testicles and scrotum to assess abnormalities

• Transvaginal Ultrasound: Internal imaging of female reproductive organs

Lymphatic and Immune System

The lymphatic and immune systems work together to protect the body from external threats like pathogens, as well as internal threats, such as cancer cells.

• System Components and Functions: Essential terms include “lymph nodes” (small structures that filter lymph, a fluid containing white blood cells), “antibody” (a protein produced by the immune system to neutralize pathogens), and “spleen” (an organ that filters blood and supports immune functions)

• Disorders and Conditions: Understanding conditions like “lymphedema” (swelling due to lymphatic system blockage), “autoimmune diseases” (where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s own cells), and “immunodeficiency disorders” (conditions that prevent the body’s ability to fight infections)

• Diagnostic Treatment Terms: Terms such as “immunization” (the process by which a person becomes protected against a disease through vaccination) and “allergy testing” (tests to determine substances to which an individual is allergic)

Terminology Related to the Lymphatic and Immune Systems

Root Words: Descriptions and Meanings

• Aden/o-: Pertains to the glands; “Adenopathy” denotes gland diseases or issues

• Antigen/o-: Concerns antigens which provoke immune responses when identified as foreign

• Auto-: Relates to self; “autoimmune disease” describes when the immune system attacks the body’s tissues

• Bacteri/o-: About bacteria; “Bactericidal” means capable of killing bacteria

• Cyt/o-: Refers to cells; “Cytology” is the study of cell structures and functions

• Fibr/o-: Pertains to fibrous tissue; “Fibrosis” indicates connective tissue thickening and scarring

• Gamm/o-: Involves gamma globulins; “Gamma globulin” injections offer temporary disease protection

• Hemat/o-, Hem/o-: About blood; “Hematology” studies blood disorders, “Hemolysis” describes red blood cell destruction

• Hist/o-: Concerns tissues; “Histology” is the microscopic study of tissue structures

• Immun/o-: Pertains to immunity; “immunodeficiency” is a compromised immune system’s state

• Immunoglobulin/o-: About immunoglobulins or antibodies; “immunoglobulin” proteins act as antibodies

• Infect/o-: Concerns infections; “Infectious” describes disease-causing pathogen presence

• Interfer/o-: Involves interferon; “Interferon” is used in treatments for certain cancers and viruses

• Leuk/o-: Pertains to white blood cells; “Leukemia” affects white blood cell counts, leading to cancer

• Lymph/o-: About lymph or lymphatic fluid; “Lymphocyte” is a lymphatic fluid white blood cell

• Lymphaden/o-: Refers to lymph nodes; “lymphadenopathy” indicates lymph node diseases or swelling

• Lymphangi/o-: Concerns lymph vessels; “Lymphangiectasis” is the dilation of lymph vessels

• Lymphocty/o-: Involves lymphocytes; “Lymphocytosis” is a blood lymphocyte increase

• Macro-: Means large; “Macrophage” is a white blood cell that digests debris and pathogens

• Malign/o-: About malignancy or cancer; “Malignant” suggests severe disease progression

• Micro-: Implies small; “Microorganism” refers to potential pathogen microscopic organisms

• Myel/o-: Pertains to bone marrow or spinal cord; “Myeloma” is bone marrow plasma cell cancer

• Neoplasm/o-: Concerns new growth or tumors; “Neoplasm” can be any benign or malignant tumors

• Nos/o-: About disease; “Nosocomial” describes hospital acquired infections

• Onco-: Relates to tumors; “Oncology” is the medical study and treatment of tumors

• Path/o-: Pertains to disease; “pathogen” is any disease causing organism or substance

• Phag/o-: Involves ingestion; “phagocyte” refers to cells that ingest and destroy invaders

• Plasm/o-: Concerns plasma; “Plasmapheresis” removes harmful antibodies from the blood

• Septic/o-: About sepsis; “Septicemia” is a serious blood infection leading to sepsis

• Ser/o-: Refers to serum; “Serology” studies immune responses in body fluids

• Splen/o-: Involves the spleen; “Splenectomy” is surgical spleen removal

• Thromb/o-: About clots; “Thrombosis” is a blood vessel clot

• Thym/o-: Concerns the thymus; “Thymoma” is a tumor originating from thymus tissue

• Tonsill/o-: Pertains to tonsils; “Tonsillectomy” is surgical tonsil removal

• Toxic/o-: About poison; “Toxicology” examines chemical effects on living organisms

• Transplant/o-: Involves organs or tissue transplants; “Transplantation” is moving tissues between bodies

• Tumor/o-: Concerns tumors; “Tumorigenic” refer to tumor-causing agents

• Vaccin/o-: Pertains to vaccines; “Vaccination” is administering a vaccine to induce immunity

• Vir/o-: About viruses; “Virology” is the study of viruses and their diseases

• Xen/o-: Relates to foreign species; “Xenotransplantation” is transplanting

Most Common Pathologies, Disorders, and Conditions

• Allergies: Immune system’s overreaction to typically harmless substances

• Alopecia Areata: Autoimmune loss of hair in patches

• Anaphylaxis: Severe, fast-onset allergic reaction, potentially fatal

• Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS): Autoimmune disorder increasing blood clot risk

• Asthma: Inflammatory respiratory condition, often linked to allergies

• Autoimmune Diseases: Immune system attacks the body, including lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, and type 1 diabetes

• Celiac Disease: Gluten ingestion damages the small intestine in this autoimmune disorder

• Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS): Unexplained, persistent fatigue not relieved by rest

• Graft-versus-Host-Disease (GVHD): Donated bone marrow or cells attack the recipient’s body post-transplant

• Graves Disease: Thyroid overactivity due to an autoimmune response

• Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS): Immune system attacks peripheral nerves, causing weakness or paralysis

• Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis: Autoimmune attack on the thyroid, can cause hypothyroidism

• Hemophilia: Blood clotting disorder due to insufficient clotting proteins

• Hodgkin’s Lymphoma (HL): Lymphatic system cancer identified by Reed-Sternberg cells

• Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): Virus attacks the immune system, potentially leading to aids

• Immunodeficiency Disorders: Include conditions where the immune system fails to fight infections effectively, such as CVID and SCID

• Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): Chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, includes Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis

• Kawasaki Disease: Causes inflammation in blood vessel walls, mainly affects children

• Leukemia: Blood and bone marrow cancer leading to abnormal white blood cell production

• Lyme Disease: Tick-borne disease causing fever, fatigue, and skin rash

• Lymphedema: Swelling due to lymph fluid accumulation, often from lymph node removal or damage

• Mononucleosis (Mono): Viral infection causing fever, sore throat, and fatigue

• Multiple Myeloma: Bone marrow cancer affecting plasma cells and blood cell production

• Myasthenia Gravis: Autoimmune disorder causing muscle weakness

• Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma (NHL): Group of blood cancers excluding Hodgkin’s Lymphoma

• Pernicious Anemia: Autoimmune condition impairing vitamin B12 absorption and causing red blood cell decrease

• Psoriasis: Skin cells accumulate rapidly, causing scaling and inflammation

• Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Chronic joint inflammation

• Rosacea: Skin condition causing facial redness and visible blood vessels

• Sarcoidosis: Multi-organ inflammatory disease forming granulomas, especially in lungs and lymph nodes

• Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID): Genetic disorder severely impairing the immune system

• Sickle Cell Disease: Inherited red blood cell disorder causing pain and organ damage

• Sjogren’s Syndrome: Autoimmune disease causing dry eyes and mouth

• Splenomegaly: Spleen enlargement due to various conditions

• Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): Multi-organ autoimmune disease

• Thrombocytopenia: Low blood platelet count leading to bleeding and bruising

• Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1D): Autoimmune condition where the pancreas fails to produce insulin

• Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome: Genetic disorder affecting immunity and blood clotting

Most Common Procedures, Tests, and Examinations

• Allergen Immunotherapy: Long-term treatment reducing symptoms for allergic conditions

• Antinuclear Antibody Test (ANA Test): Identifies autoimmune disease presence by detecting antinuclear antibodies

• Bone Marrow Biopsy: Diagnoses blood disorders by examining collected bone marrow

• C-Reactive Protein (CRP) Test: Detects bodily inflammation indicating infections or chronic diseases

• CD4 Count: Measures CD4 T cells, crucial for HIV/AIDS management

• Complement System Tests: Assesses complement protein activity and levels in blood

• Complete Blood Count (CBC): Evaluates overall health and various disorders via blood analysis

• Computed Tomography (CT) Scan of Lymph Nodes: Provides detailed lymph node images to check for disease

• Coomb’s Test: Detects red blood cell-targeting antibodies, diagnosing autoimmune hemolytic anemia

• Cytokine Panel: Measures blood cytokine levels, indicating inflammation or autoimmune activity

• Direct Immunofluorescence: Uses fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies to identify tissue antigens

• DTH Skin Test (Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity Test): Assesses immune response to foreign substances

• ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay): Measures blood antibodies, diagnosing conditions like HIV/AIDS

• Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR or Sed Rate): Indicates inflammation by measuring erythrocyte settling speed

• Flow Cytometry: Diagnoses disorders by analyzing particle characteristics in a fluid

• Gene Therapy: Modifies genes to treat or prevent diseases, including immune system disorders

• HIV Viral Load Test: Indicates HIV infection progress by measuring blood HIV RNA

• HLA Typing (Human Leukocyte Antigen Typing): Identifies immune response-critical genes, important for organ transplantation

• Immunoglobulin Test (Ig Test): Diagnoses immune disorders by measuring blood immunoglobulin levels

• Immunophenotyping: Classifies cells by surface markers, crucial for blood cancer classification

• Interferon-Gamma Release Assays (IGRAs): Diagnoses TB infection by measuring immune response

• Lymph Node Biopsy: Checks for disease signs by examining removed lymph node parts

• Lymph Node Dissection: Removes lymph nodes to treat or prevent cancer spread

• Lymphangiogram: Identifies lymphatic system blockages or diseases using dye X-ray studies

• Lymphoscintigraphy: Diagnoses lymphatic system disorders with scintigram imaging

• Monospot Test: Rapidly diagnoses infectious mononucleosis by detecting heterophile antibodies

• Neutrophil Count: Part of CBC, assesses neutrophil numbers for diagnosing infections

• Patch Test: Identifies allergic skin reaction causes by applying potential allergens to the skin

• Plasma Cells Immunofixation: Diagnoses conditions like multiple myeloma by identifying blood plasma antibodies

• Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan: Detects organ and tissue function, often for cancer detection

• QuantiFERON-TB Gold Test (QFT-G): Aids in tuberculosis infection detection

• Rheumatoid Factor (RF) Test: Indicates rheumatoid arthritis by measuring rheumatoid factor levels

• Schilling Test: Assesses vitamin B12 absorption for diagnosing deficiencies and pernicious anemia

• Skin Allergy Test: Detects allergens triggering allergic reactions via skin exposure

• Splenectomy: Removes the spleen, often to treat spleen diseases

• Stem Cell Transplantation: Replaces unhealthy bone marrow with healthy stem cells

• T-Cell Count: Evaluates immune system health by measuring T-cell numbers, especially for HIV

• Thymectomy: Removes thymus, necessary for some conditions like myasthenia gravis

• Tuberculin Skin Test (TST): Determines immune response to tuberculosis-causing bacteria

• Western Blot: Detects specific proteins in a sample, confirming HIV infections

Integumentary System

The integumentary system, consisting of skin, hair, nails, and various glands, is the body’s largest organ and serves as the first line of defense against the environment. It regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and senses external stimuli.

• Skin Anatomy and Function: Key terms include “epidermis” (the outermost layer of skin), “dermis” (the skin’s middle layer, which contains connective tissue, hair follicles, and sweat glands), and “melanin” (a pigment that gives skin its color and protects against UV radiation)

• Skin Conditions: Familiarity with conditions such as “dermatitis” (inflammation of the skin), “psoriasis” (a condition causing skin cells to multiply rapidly, resulting in red, scaly patches), and “melanoma” (the most serious type of skin cancer)

• Diagnostic and Treatment Terms: Term such as “dermabrasion” (a procedure to remove skin layers)

Root Words: Descriptions and Meanings

• Acr/o-: Relates to extremities; “Acrocyanosis” is extremity blueness or pallor

• Chrom/o, Chromat/o: About color; “Chromhidrosis” involves colored sweat secretion

• Cicatr/o-: About scarring; “Cicatricial alopecia” involves hair loss from scalp scarring

• Cry/o: Concerns cold; “Cryotherapy” uses extreme cold in treatments

• Cutane/o-: Pertains to skin; “Subcutaneous” means under the skin, like some injection

• Derm/o, Dermat/o: About skin; “Dermatitis” involves skin inflammation

• Erythm/o, Erythemat/o: About redness; “Erythema” is skin redness

• Follicul/o-: Relates to follicles; “Folliculitis” is inflammation of hair follicles, causing inflamed skin

• Hidr/o: About sweat glands; “Hyperhidrosis” is excessive sweating

• Hirsut/o-: Pertains to excessive hair; “Hirsutism” is excessive hair growth in women on typical male-pattern areas

• Ichthy/o: Relates to fish; “Ichthyosis” to describe dry, scaly skin conditions

• Kerat/o: Concerns keratin; “Keratosis pilaris” causes rough patches and small bumps

• Leuk/o: Concerns white; “Leukoderma” indicates skin whitening from depigmentation

• Macul/o: About spots; “macule” is a flat, skin colored spot

• Melan/o: Pertains to melanin; “Melanoma” is a serious skin cancer from melanocytes

• Myc/o: About fungi; “Dermatomycosis” refers to fungal skin infections

• Necr/o-: Related to dead tissues; “Necrosis” indicates tissue death due to factors like disease or injury

• Onych/o: About nails; “Onychomycosis” is a fungal nail infection

• Papul/o: Concerns pimples; “Papulopustular” acne involves pus-filled pimples

• Pil/o: About hair; “Pilonidal cyst” is a cyst near the buttocks with hair debris

• Prurit/o: Concerns itching; “Pruritus” is the medical term for an itching sensation

• Pustul/o: Concerns pustules; “pustular psoriasis” is a psoriasis form with pustules

• Rhytid/o: About wrinkles; “Rhytidectomy” or a facelift reduces wrinkles

• Seb/o: Relates to sebaceous glands; “Seborrheic dermatitis” causes scaly patches of red skin

• Squam/o: Relates to scales; “Squamous cell carcinoma” is a type of skin cancer

• Steat/o-: Concerning fat; “Steatoma” or sebaceous cyst, is a benign fatty gland tumor

• Trich/o: Concerns hair; “Trichotillomania” is a compulsive hair pulling disorder

• Ungu/o: Pertains to nails; “ungual” describes nail-related aspects

• Urtic/o: About hives; “Urticaria” or hives, cause itchy welts

• Varic/o: Pertains to varicose veinsl “Varicose eczema” affects skin around varicose veins

• Vesicul/o: Relates to blisters; “Vesicular dermatitis” is marked by small blisters

• Xer/o: Pertains to dryness; “Xerosis” is the medical term for dry skin

Most Common Pathologies, Disorders, and Conditions

• Acne Vulgaris: A condition marked by red pimples due to inflamed sebaceous glands, predominantly on the face

• Actinic Keratosis (AK): Scaly skin patches from sun exposure, indicating potential skin cancer development

• Alopecia Areata: Hair loss in patches, an autoimmune condition

• Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC): The most prevalent skin cancer, originating from basal cells

• Cellulitis: A serious bacterial infection causing red, swollen, and warm skin

• Contact Dermatitis: Skin inflammation from contact with irritants or allergens

• Decubitus Ulcer: Skin and tissue damage from prolonged pressure, leading to sores or ulcers

• Dermatofibroma: Benign skin nodules, often on the lower legs, resembling scars

• Eczema (Atopic Dermatitis): Causes red, itchy skin; common in children but can occur at any age

• Frostbite: Tissue damage form freezing, affecting skin and underlying issues

• Herpes Zoster (Shingles): A painful rash from the varicella-zoster virus, also responsible for chickenpox

• Hives (Urticaria): Itchy, red welts on the skin, often due to allergic reactions

• Hyperhidrosis: Excessive sweating disorder, impacting daily activities

• Impetigo: A contagious bacterial skin infection, causing red sores, primarily around the nose and mouth

• Keratosis Pilaris: Skin condition with rough patches and tiny bumps

• Lichen Planus: Inflammatory condition affecting skin, hair, nails, and mucous membranes

• Melanoma: Skin cancer developing from melanocytes, potentially deadly

• Molluscum Contagiosum: A viral infection causing skin bumps

• Onychomycosis: Nail fungal infection, leading to thick, brittle, and discolored

• Pilonidal Cyst: Skin growth near the tailbone with hair and skin debris, often painful

• Port-Wine Stain: A vascular birthmark resembling spilled wine

• Psoriasis: An autoimmune skin condition causing rapid skin cell buildup

• Rosacea: Chronic facial redness and visible blood vessels

• Scabies: Itchy skin from the Sarcoptes scabiei mite

• Seborrheic Dermatitis: Causes scaly patches, red skin, and dandruff

• Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC): Skin cancer in squamous cells, second most common type

• Strawberry Hemangioma: A red, raised birthmark appearing shortly after birth

• Sunburn: Skin redness and pain from excessive UV exposure

• Tinea Infections (Ringworm): Fungal infection of skin, hair, or nails

• Vitiligo: Skin condition with loss of pigment in patches

• Warts (Verrucae): Bumps from HPV, potentially on any skin area

• Xanthelasma: Yellowish cholesterol deposits near the eyelids, indicating lipid metabolism issues

Most Common Procedures, Tests, and Examinations

• Allergen Immunotherapy: This treatment method is designed for long term relief, enhancing the body’s resistance to allergens to diminish the symptoms of severe allergies that don’t respond to normal treatments

• Autologous Fat Transfer: This cosmetic technique involves harvesting fat from one area of the body to fill in or contour another area, often employed to enhance skin texture and diminish the appearance of scars

• Biopsy: A diagnostic procedure where a tiny section of skin is removed and examined microscopically to identify and exclude specific skin disorders or diseases.

• Chemical Peeling: This technique applies a chemical solution to the skin to prompt it to peel off, revealing newer, smoother, and less wrinkled

• Cryotherapy: Utilizes extremely cold temperatures, typically through liquid nitrogen, to freeze and eliminate abnormal skin cells or growths

• Dermabrasion: A method for refining the skin’s surface that employs a fast-spinning device to sand away the outer skin layers, effective for scars, acne marks, and damage from sun exposure

• Dermoscopy: A non-invasive technique for assesses skin lesions with a dermatoscope, distinguishing between benign and malignant growths

• Direct Fluorescent Antibody Test: A diagnostic test with fluorescent dyes to identify specific antigens or antibodies in tissues, helpful in diagnosing infectious and autoimmune conditions

• Epidermal Leveling: A skin refinement procedure that removes the top layer of dead skin and fine hairs, improving the skin’s overall appearance

• Excisional Biopsy: The complete surgical removal of a suspicious area or lump for detailed examination and analysis

• Full Body Skin Exam: An extensive skin check performed by a dermatologist to detect skin cancer or other skin conditions

• Hair Transplant: A procedure that relocates hair follicles from a donor area to a bald or thinning area, restoring hair growth

• Intradermal Testing: A diagnostic test for allergies, injecting a tiny amount of allergen under the skin to observe for an allergic reaction

• KOH Test: A straightforward test that identifies fungal infections in skin, hair, and nails by dissolving keratin with potassium hydroxide

• Laser Therapy: Employs concentrated light for treating various skin issues, including cosmetic concerns and skin lesions that are precancerous or cancerous

• Methylene Blue Test: A diagnostic method applying methylene blue to skin or mucous membranes to highlight damaged or abnormal cells

• Microneedling: A skin rejuvenation procedure that uses fine needles to create tiny punctures in the skin, stimulating the body’s healing process and improving skin texture

• Mohs Surgery: A precise surgical method for removing skin cancer by excising and examining successive layers of skin until only cancer-free tissue is left

• Mole Mapping: A monitoring method to observe changes in moles over tie, aiding in the early detection of melanoma

• Patch Testing: A diagnostic approach to identify allergic skin reactions by applying allergens to the skin and monitoring the reactions

• Photodynamic Therapy: Uses a photosensitizer drug and light to destroy cancer cells

• Punch Biopsy: Removes a cylindrical section of skin tissue with a circular blade for diagnostic purposes

• Reflectance Confocal Microscopy: A non-invasive imagining technique providing detailed images of the skin, useful for examining skin lesions and the outer skin layer

• Scalp Biopsy: Involves taking a small sample of scalp skin for microscopic analysis to diagnose conditions affecting hair loss or scalp health

• Sebum Production Test: Measure’s the skin’s sebum level to diagnose conditions related to sebaceous glands’ activity

• Sentinel Lymph Node Biopsy: A surgical technique to assess if melanoma or other cancers have spread to the lymphatic system

• Shave Biopsy: A method where a superficial skin layer is removed for examination, typically for shallow skin lesions

• Skin Grafting: Transfers skin from one body part to another to repair extensive wounds or burns

• Skin Prick Test: A diagnostic test for allergies where the skin is pricked and exposed to allergens to check for reactions

• Teledermatology: Part of telemedicine that enables remote diagnosis and treatment of skin conditions through digital imagining and communication technology

• Topical Chemotherapy: Involves applying anti-cancer drugs directly to the skin as creams, gels, or lotions to treat certain skin cancers

• Tzanck Smear Test: Scrapes the skin’s surface to examine cells for conditions such as psoriasis, vitiligo, and eczema by reducing inflammation and slowing cell growth

• Wood’s Lamp Examination: A diagnostic test using UV light to examine the skin closely for infections, pigmentation disorders, and other skin conditions. This examination helps in identifying various skin issues by highlighting abnormalities not visible under normal light.

Diagnostic Procedures and Pharmacology

Common Diagnostic Tests and Procedures

Imaging Tests

• X-rays: Utilize low doses of radiation to capture images of the body’s structures, particularly useful for examining bones and detecting fractures

• MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Employs powerful magnets and radio waves to generate detailed images of organs and tissues, invaluable for diagnosing brain tumors, spinal cord injuries, and more

• CT (Computed Tomography): Combines multiple X-ray images to produce cross-sectional views of the body, excellent for pinpointing tremors, blood clots, and complex bone fractures

• Ultrasound: Uses sound waves to create images of the inside of the body, commonly used in prenatal care and diagnosing conditions in the heart and abdominal organs

Blood Tests

• Complete Blood Count (CBC): Measures the level of red blood cells, white blood cells, hemoglobin, and platelets, helping to diagnose conditions like anemia and infection

• Blood Chemistry Panel: Assesses various chemicals and enzymes in the blood, providing information on the health of kidneys, liver, and heart

• Blood Clotting Tests: Evaluate the blood’s ability to clot, crucial for identifying bleeding disorders or the efficacy of blood-thinning medications

Biopsies

• Needle biopsy: Involves inserting a needle into the skin to collect tissue from muscles, bones, or organs

• Endoscopic biopsy: Utilizes an endoscope (a thin, flexible tube with a light and camera) to visualize and collect tissue from the inside of the body, such as the stomach or colon

• Skin biopsy: Entails removing a small section of skin to diagnose skin conditions or skin cancers

Complete Drug Classifications List

• Analgesics: Relieve Pain

  • Examples: Acetaminophen, Ibuprofen, Morphine

• Anesthetics: Induce anesthesia (loss of sensation or pain)

  • Examples: Lidocaine, Propofol

• Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors: Lower blood pressure and treat heart failure

  • Examples: Lisinopril, Enalapril

• Antibiotics: Combat bacterial infections

  • Examples: Amoxicillin, Ciprofloxacin

• Anticoagulants: Prevent blood clot formation

  • Examples: Warfarin, Heparin

• Antidepressants: Treat depression and anxiety

  • Examples: Fluoxetine (SSRI), Amitriptyline (TCA)

• Antidiabetics: Manage diabetes by controlling blood sugar levels

  • Examples: Metformin, Insulin

• Antifungals: Treat fungal infections

  • Examples: Fluconazole, Terbinafine

• Antihistamines: Relieve allergy symptoms

  • Examples: Loratadine, Diphenhydramine

• Anti-inflammatory drugs: Reduce inflammation

  • Examples: Aspirin, Corticosteroids

• Antimigraine agents: Treat migraine headaches

  • Examples: Sumatriptan, Topiramate

• Antineoplastics: Treat cancer by inhibiting the growth of cancer cells

  • Examples: Methotrexate, Cisplatin

• Antipsychotics: Treats psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia

  • Examples: Haloperidol, Clozapine

• Antivirals: Combat viral infections

  • Examples: Acyclovir, Oseltamivir

• Beta-Blockers: Lower blood pressure and heart conditions

  • Examples: Propranolol, Atenolol

• Calcium channel blockers: Lower blood pressure and treat angina

  • Examples: Amlodipine, Verapamil

• Contraceptives: Prevent pregnancy

  • Examples: Ethinyl estradiol/norgestimate, Levonorgestrel

• Diuretics: Removes excess water and salt through urine

  • Examples: Furosemide, Hydrochlorothiazide

• Gastrointestinal Agents: Treat digestive system conditions

  • Examples: Omeprazole (for acid reflux), Loperamide (for diarrhea)

• Immunosuppressants: Lower the body’s immune response

  • Examples: Cyclosporine, Tacrolimus

• Muscle Relaxants: Relieve muscle spasms and pain

  • Examples: Cyclobenzaprine, Methocarbamol

• Opioid analgesics: Treat severe pain

  • Examples: Morphine, Oxycodone

• Statins: Lower cholesterol levels in the blood

  • Examples: Atorvastatin, Simvastatin

• Vaccines: Prevent infectious diseases by inducing immunity

  • Examples: Influenza vaccine, Hepatitis B vaccine

Surgical Terms

Popular General Surgery Terms

• Abrasion: Superficial damage to the skin

• Amputation: The surgical removal of a limb or part of a limb

• Biopsy: Removal of tissue for examination

• Catheterization: Insertion of a catheter into a body cavity, duct, or vessel

• Debridement: The removal of damaged tissue or foreign objects from a wound

• Endoscopy: Examination of the digestive tract with an endoscope

• Excision: The removal of tissue or an organ

• Incision: A cut made through the skin and tissues for surgical access

• Laceration: A deep cut or tear in skin or flesh

• Laparoscopy: A minimally invasive surgical procedure using a laparoscope to see inside the abdomen

• Laparotomy: A large incision into the abdominal cavity

• Ostomy: Creating an opening from an area inside the body to the outside

• Resection: The surgical removal of a part of an organ or structure

• Suture: Stitches used to close a wound or incision

Popular Specialty Specific Surgical Terms

• Angioplasty (Cardiovascular surgery): Procedure to widen narrowed or obstructed arteries or veins

• Arthroscopy (Orthopedic surgery): A minimally invasive surgical procedure on a joint

• Cholecystectomy (General surgery): The surgical removal of the gallbladder

• Coronary Artery Bypass Graft (CABG) (Cardiothoracic surgery): A procedure to improve blood flow to the heart

• Craniotomy (Neurosurgery): Removal of part of the skull to access the brain

• Hemicolectomy (Colorectal surgery): The removal of one side of the colon

• Laminectomy (Orthopedic/Neurosurgery): Surgery to create space by removing part of a vertebra

• Mastectomy (Oncological surgery): The surgical removal of one or both of breasts

• Nephrectomy (Urology): Surgical removal or one or both kidneys

• Rhinoplasty (Plastic surgery): A surgical procedure to change the shape of the nose

• Thyroidectomy (Endocrine surgery): The surgical removal of all or part of the thyroid gland

Most Popular Pre- and Post-Operative Care Terms

• Anesthesia: Drugs administered for pain prevention during surgery

• Discharge Planning: Planning for a patient’s care after leaving the hospital

• Embolization: A procedure to block blood flow to a particular area of the body

• Fasting Instructions: Guidelines not to eat or drink before a surgery

• Informed Consent: Understanding the risks and benefits of a procedure before agreeing

• Pain Management: Strategy for reducing or eliminating post-surgical pain

• Postoperative (Post-op): Relating to the period after a surgical operation

• Preoperative (Pre-op): Relating to the period before a surgical operation

• Recovery Room: A room in the hospital where patients are monitored after surgery until they regain consciousness

• Rehabilitation: The process of recovery and restoration of skills and health post-surgery

• Sterilization: The process of making something free from bacteria or other living microorganisms