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11FT1 2026 

Preliminary Unit 1 - Food Availability and  Selection 

Influences on Food Availability 

Booklet 1 

Textbook Pages 3 - 26

● Historical changes to the availability of food, including: 

− Staple Foods 

− global migration of cultural groups 

− use of foods native to Australia 

What are staple foods: 

Staple foods: 

• Are foods that are easily available and ready made 

• Provide the main source of energy in diets 

• Foods that originate from plants or animals 

• Vary from different regions 

Examples of Staple Foods: 

• Wheat 

• Rice 

• Maize (corn) 

• Potatoes 

• Are a great source of complex carbohydrates (Dietary Fibers and Starches) 

• Provide roughly 75% of energy in a person’s diet 

Examples of staple plant foods: 

1. Wheat 

• Staple food in most countries 

• Needs cool and wet conditions to grow and warm 

• Needs warm dry conditions to ripen 

2. Rice: 

• Most eaten staple food due to Asian populations 

• Needs a warm climate and a lot of water to grow 

• Can be steamed, boiled, fried and grounded into flour 

Staple Animal Foods: 

1. Lamb for Colonial Australia 

2. Beef for Europe and America 

3. Fish/seafoods for Japan and The Pacific Islands 

Before colonisation, bush tucker was eaten by Indigenous Australians on its own. Back then there was no advanced  food processing technology. Today, bush tucker has been integrated into modern food dish recipes. 

• Before European settlement, Aboriginal people had a nutritious and varied diet. 

• They hunted animals and gathered plants from the regions they lived in. 

• When food ran out, Aboriginal people moved to a new region = NOMADIC. 

• They knew how to trap animals, catch seafood and how to remove the toxins from a variety of different foods. • Small fish were caught from a canoe using hooks and lines or nets.

• Larger fish were speared from rocks. 

• Sea turtles, dugongs and whales were caught  

when they were stranded on the beach. 

• Hunters would swim under water to catch birds by  

their feet or throw nets over them. 

• Pits were dug to catch emu or poisonous leaves  

were spread out for the emu to eat, which made  

them slower and easier to catch. 

• Land turtles were chased out by fire. 

• Kangaroos were caught by trip wire. 

Plant Sources 

• Roots 

• Fruits and Vegetables 

• Stems 

• Seeds and Nuts 

Fruits were dried out in the sun and yams were soaked, sliced and sun dried. Mostly fruit was eaten on the move and  only sometimes taken back to camp. 

The poisonous quandong nut had to be eaten by a cassowary, digested to remove the toxin and then excreted and  collected, washed and roasted. Cycad nuts need to be soaked in a creek for a couple of weeks to remove the toxin. 

Native Foods Today 

• Bush foods refers to the plants and animals eaten by Aboriginal people when the colonists arrived. • Today, bush food is commonly called bush tucker and includes edible plants and animals native to Australia 

European Settlers - Impact on food availability 

• The first fleet landed in Australia in 1788, with them they brought European foods and traditions. • When the first settlers arrived, they struggled to grow crops due to the harsh temperatures, and they had  difficulty adjusting to the native Australian diet. 

Specific Examples: 

• Flour, salted meat, sugar, salt, alcohol 

International Migration - Impact on food availability 

In 1830, global migration to Australia started occurring, with them immigrants brought their own staple foods. 

Specific Examples: 

Chinese 

• Chinese migrated to Australia to take part in the gold rush, this occurred in the 1850’s • With them they brought staple food like rice and other foods like tofu, bok choy and noodles • Signature dishes include: Peking Duck, Dim sum 

Italian 

• Italians migrated to Australia to work on the sugarcane fields during the 1880’s 

• They arrived in Queensland then moved to Melbourne and Sydney to become farmers • With them they brought staple foods like pasta and bread, as well as tomatoes 

• Signature dishes include: spaghetti bolognese and margarita pizza

Impact on food availability 

• We now have a much more diverse and larger selection of foods 

• Staple foods from other countries across the world have been integrated into our own, for example a staple  food in Australia is rice, from China 

● Technological developments influential on food availability, including: 

− production and manufacturing processes and equipment techniques 

− storage and distribution techniques 

− marketplace practices 

Transport 

• consumers expect food to be safe and edible 

• food manufacturers must use correct machinery and  

equipment to produce, store and transport good quality  

food to the consumer 

• food may be transported by road, sea or land 

• good transport and distribution networks are needed 

After harvest and before distribution 

• it is vital for suppliers to protect food from  

contamination and spoilage after harvest  

and before distribution 

• appropriate food storage maintains the  

nutritional value of food and prevents  

contamination 

• Technology has enabled the development  

of sophisticated storage systems such as  

improved silos for storage of wheat and  

grains which monitors temperature,  

moisture, ventilation and prevents spoilage 

Transport systems changed by technology 

Food is transported by: 

• water 

• rail 

• truck 

• air 

• innovations have been created in new energy efficient  

technologies, intelligent transport and driverless vehicles 

• New energy efficient resources such as solar, wind and carbon  

fibre as a transporting material have been developed

• Intelligent transport systems can raise system performance, reduce travel times and improve  safety 

Providing consumers with necessary information 

• Barcodes, biometric scanning and infra-red scanning helps people see where the food has  come from 

• Quick read (QR) codes and particular apps can provide the consumer with all the required  information 

Production 

• Advancements in technology in production = better soil, nutrients, water and pest  management. 

• The Industrial revolution led to people moving to cities and they couldn’t grow their own food. • Global agricultural system = crops grown by large multinational companies • Subsistence agriculture = developing world (where farmers grow crops and raise livestock primarily to feed  themselves and their families) 

Industrialised agriculture = developed world (focuses on maximizing food production efficiency for trade and  economic value) 

Manufacturing and Processing 

Examples of processed foods that are commonly consumed: 

Examples of how technology has improved manufacturing and processing techniques • 3D food printing 

• Alternative proteins 

• AI-driven quality control 

• Precision agriculture 

• Robots

• Increased shelf life of foods 

• Increased nutritional value 

Equipment Techniques 

SMART FARMS: 

• Precision agriculture, remote sensing, computers, the internet, specialised software etc. • They allow farmers to produce more food with fewer resources using data-driven technologies 

New Innovations: 

HYDROPHONIC TECHNOLOGY: 

Hydroponic technology is continuing to grow in popularity because food can be grown using a nutrient-rich water  solution instead of soil 

LED BULBS: 

Companies are also working on creating special LED bulbs that produce specific wavelengths to help grow plants  indoors. 

1. Thermal Processing Techniques 

• Pasteurization → uses controlled heat to destroy harmful pathogens 

• Sterilization / UHT → rapidly heating the product to instantly kill all microorganisms 

• Blanching → food is briefly boiled in water and immediately plunged into an ice bath 

• Spray Drying → converts liquid into dry powders by atomizing them into hot gas streams 

2. Mechanical & Physical Processing Techniques 

• Extrusion Cooking → raw ingredients are mixed, cooked, and shaped under high heat, pressure, and  moisture 

• Homogenization → forces ingredients through tiny valves under extreme pressure. 

• Centrifugation → high-speed spinning to separate heterogeneous mixtures based on density 

3. Non-Thermal & Advanced Preservation Techniques 

• High-Pressure Processing (HPP) → a cold-pasteurization technique where packaged foods are subjected to  extreme isostatic water pressure 

• Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) → short, high-voltage electrical pulses to food placed between two electrodes 

4. Separation & Concentration Techniques 

• Membrane Filtration → semi-permeable barrier to separate molecules of different sizes by applying pressure 

5. Packaging & Handling Techniques 

• Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) → replaces the ambient air inside a package with a tailored blend of  gases 

• 3D Food Printing → builds edible items layer by layer in a 3D printer 

Marketplace practices: 

• Before the 1930’s Australians shopped at specialty stores for meat, bread and produce

• Food was fresh as storage limited, choice was limited and goods were individually measured  then placed in paper bags 

• Many trips were needed as fridges were not available yet 

• Examples of marketplaces: Coles, Woolworths, Aldi, Grosco, eBay, Facebook marketplace Involved in marketplace practices: 

- Customers: (a person that purchases goods or services from a seller) 

- Retailers: (buys lots of things from factories or wholesalers (like in bulk), then breaks them up and  sells them one by one to normal people like us in shops or online) 

- Producers: (anyone or anything that creates, grows, or supplies goods and services)

Marketplace practices: 

• A marketplace is a place where consumers go to purchase goods needed • Recent technology has seen electronic scanning, EFTPOS, online shopping, home delivery,  24/7 service rise in use in marketplaces. 

Positives of marketplace practices: 

1. Customers: 

• Technology helps customers navigate stores easier 

• Access more available food e.g 24/7 stores such as Kmart at Blacktown • Home deliveries allow customers to stay at home when necessary and still access food 

2. Retailers: 

• Reward cards help producers keep track of customers buys, therefore promoting the  foods more regularly, prompting customers to come back and buy from the same store 

3. Producers: (anyone or anything that creates, grows, or supplies goods and services) 

• Social media allows producers to promote their products making the world aware of  them and retailers want to sell them 

• Electronic scanning helps producers and retailers know when the stock is and when  items need to be restocked 

• Scanning also helps producers know what items are most popular and if they should  create other varieties of the same product e.g Cadbury chocolate (scanning is like  looking on the internet for what other people are doing online e.g prices, products) Negatives of marketplace practices: 

1. Customers: 

• False or misleading advertising tricks people into buying products that were not what  they expected

• Although having loyalty/rewards cards are great, marketplaces can use access  personal information to show products catered towards the customer 

• Scams are very common online as technology has advanced meaning customers are  more vulnerable to money loss and information being take 

2. Retailers: 

• As a result of price rises, loyal customers can be lost due to lower prices at a different  marketplace 

• Online shopping comes with reviews. These reviews can be fake. As a result of this,  marketplaces can lose customers also damaging their reputation as a whole 

3. Producers: 

• Having competition creates pressure to keep the best prices to stay on top • Stock that is damaged, returned or unsold causes money loss affecting the profit  income 

• Risk of over producing if demand is reduced after a large amount of previous demand 

• Social, economic and political influences on food availability,including: 

− effects of poverty and affluence 

− type and state of the economy 

− government policy, eg taxation, embargoes,subsidies, war, export 

strategies 

Economy Definition = All activity related to production, distribution, consumption and trade of goods and services.  Governments try to encourage growth of the economy as it gives a country more political power. Within the economy  there are phases that occur. Economic phases include: 

01 High Economic Activity → growth, expansion/boom 

02. Low Economic Activity → inflation, recession or decline 

03. Recovery → moving from recession into prosperity 

Types of Economies 

01. Agricultural Economy = An economy that relies on the products & export of agricultural products to maintain a  standard of living. For instance, developing countries like Chad and Sierra Leone are agricultural economies. 02. Subsistence Economy = Economies that are usually able to provide enough food to feed the populace.  Examples can be remote tribes in Africa and Polynesia. 

03. Industrial Economy = This type of economy produce large amounts of food for trade– take India and China for  example. 

04. Market Economy = An economic system where the production pricing, and distribution of goods and services are  primarily determined by supply & demand. 

05. Mixed Economy = A mixed economy is a combination of 2 or more of the above economies. Australia is a good  example of a mixed economy, this means that the producers and consumers dictate population, distribution, and  price– to which the Government regulated the economy to ensure prosperity and avoid absolute poverty

Poverty and its effect: 

When money is limited so is the choice and variety of food. For example in low income households new foods are  avoided as the rejection of the taste can lead to wastage of food. Food is more costly in rural areas. Limited  availability, accessibility and high costs of nutritious food influence consumers who are socially or  geographically disadvantaged and affect their ability to consume healthy foods. 

Types of poverty: 

1) relative poverty is when one or more of your basic needs are not met. (basic needs include: food, clothing and  shelter) 

2) Absolute poverty is where a person cannot supply any of their basic needs for long periods of time. It is life  threatening. 

The cycle of poverty Poverty: can trap someone into a cycle of food insecurity and poor health. A poor family can have little to eat, so the children are too sick to attend school.This leads to limited education and limited ability to obtain work.The parents could die young and the children have limited resources to look after themselves. Poverty can  affect anyone regardless of their culture,religion or ethnicity. 

Reasons for low production yields 

- Over-cropping of soils : The soil is not given a rest as there is limited land available. This means the soil does not  have an opportunity to replace the lost nutrients and so low yields result. 

- Low levels of technology : Technology is needed to produce good quality fertilisers which are suited for different  types of soil eg acidic, clay, sandy, also machinery for planting and harvesting and storage of grains. - Natural disasters such as drought and floods destroy the crops and make farmers have to move to the city for food  and work. Spare food is not available to feed the people if a crop fails. 

Affluence: affluence refers to having great wealth. The abundance of wealth leads to increase in eating out, take out  food and junk food consumption which leads to obesity. 

Social Justice: Social Justice is essentially the need to provide everyone the opportunity to sustain a mentally and  physically healthy lifestyle– promotingtolerance, freedom and equality for all people in their everyday lives, in every  level of society. 

Political Influences: Our system of public administration and government affects availability, pricing, variety and  quality of Australian food supply. Policies can define regulations and either encourage or restrict trade and investment.  

There are several different factors which impact food availability.  

Factors include: 

- Taxation : Compulsory, non refundable levy imposed by the government on individuals and businesses to fund public  services– such as infrastructure, healthcare and education. Taxation can directly influence prices, supply chain costs and consumer choices– often making unhealthy foods more expensive 

- Embargoes : Partial or complete prohibition of trade with a particular country/ group of countries enforced by the  government. Embargoes reduce food availability and security by disrupting imports, causing severe inflation and  increasing under nourishment. 

- SUbsidies : Payment made to producers to encourage local production, supplement income, and assist in operation.  Subsidies can increase supply through incentivized production and lowering consumer prices– which enhances food  security, supporting agricultural stability. 

- War : A state of armed conflict between groups or countries. War is a primary driver of global hunger, which destroys  agricultural infrastructure, displaces populations, and restricts access to aid and food. 

- Export Strategies : These are planned approaches for selling goods or services produced in a home country to  customers in a foreign market. Export strategies make farmers and governments prioritise growing high-value crops  for sale (like coffee or tea) over staple foods (like rice or bread), this can drive up the cost of foods for local families as staple foods are less abundant.

Factors Affecting  Food Selection 

Booklet 2 

Textbook Pages 29 - 50

● Physiological factors, including: 

− hunger, appetite, satiety 

− nutritional requirements, eg age, gender, size, activity level 

− reactions to food, eg appearance, odour, taste, allergy 

Definition of hunger: 

The feeling of emptiness, causing weakness or pain due to lack of food. Controlled by the gland hypothalamus regulates  temperature, control of appetite through release of hormones. 

Appetite: 

Is the desire or craving for food when not hungry, the hypothalamus registers cues and send messages to the brain that makes  you want food  

What effects appetite: 

1. Smell 

2. Sight 

3. Texture 

4. Emotional cues and social situations 

Satiety: 

Is the feeling of fullness that comes with eating adequate amounts of food. The body digests food at differing rates so different  foods remain in the stomach for varying lengths of time 

Age: 

• All ages need the same six nutrients to survive(proteins,carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, fats and water However the amount of nutrients can change based on your age and stage of life 

Gender: 

Adipose tissue: 

Women: Store adipose tissue on their upper arms,bust, waist, buttocks, hips and thighs 

Men: Store adipose tissue on their waist and midriff 

Differences in specific nutrients: 

Women: Higher calcium and iron due to menstruation and child birth 

Men: higher testosterone, muscle mass

● Psychological factors, including: 

− values, beliefs, habits, attitudes, emotions, self-concept, experiences 

Psychological factors: 

• Emotions and self concept 

• Values and beliefs 

• Habits, attitudes and experiences 

[Emotions and self-concept]  

Emotions: 

• Many people use food to relieve emotional stress. 

• Some people don’t eat when they are stressed, while others overeat to gain comfort. 

• Most common comfort foods are high in fat or sugar 

For example: chocolate, coffee, chips, ice cream 

• Some people eat food because of the pleasant experiences associated with it For example: homesick travellers may crave foods from home 

Food may be used to nurture, socialise, celebrate, calm, reward, relieve boredom or depression. 

Self-concept: 

Self-concept describes how we feel about ourselves (self-esteem) and the way we see our personal appearance (body image). 

Self-concept develops during childhood and changes gradually over time because of illness, peers, media and weight gain. 

We may select food to improve our self image 

For example: weight reducing products, protein building shakes, expensive seafood Paragraph version: 

Emotions can strongly affect food selection. Some people use food to relieve stress,  sadness or boredom, while others may lose their appetite when stressed. 

Comfort foods are often high in fat, sugar or salt, such as chocolate, cakes, ice cream and  chips. Food can also be used to celebrate, reward, socialise or provide comfort. 

Self-concept describes how a person sees and feels about themselves which includes self esteem and body image. People may choose foods to improve their self-image or match their lifestyle. For  example, someone may choose protein shakes, weight-loss products, low-fat foods or expensive seafood.

[Values and beliefs] 

Values and beliefs are personal and religious principles, ideas that influence the food  choices people make. They are considered a physiological factor because they affect  what a person is willing to eat. 

Religious and cultural beliefs may restrict or value certain foods based on the principles of  each religion and culture. 

For example, Muslims only eat halal meat (blessed in a certain way) and avoid pork as it is considered  'unhygienic' in the religion, Jewish people follow Kosher dietary laws (blessed in certain ways), and Hindus  may avoid beef. 

Cultural and family values passed down through generations influence what foods people  consider normal or acceptable. 

Personal ethics and values such as concern for animal welfare or the environment may lead  people to choose to be a vegetarian or have a vegan diet. 

Food selection reflects on what a person believes is religiously, morally or personally the right thing to do. 

[Habits, Attitudes, and experiences] 

Habits - Behaviours repeated regularly without thinking 

They influence: What we eat, when we eat, where we eat, and who we eat with 

Habits are difficult to break once established and either be positive (regular healthy meals) or negative  (frequent junk food/snacking) 

Examples of food habits: 

• Drinking soft drinks instead of water 

• Eating sweets after meals 

• Adding salt before tasting food 

• Eating the same breakfast every day 

Attitudes - How people think or feel about certain foods 

They are influenced by: Culture, personal experiences and health beliefs 

• People may avoid or prefer foods based on opinions or perceptions 

Examples 

• Choosing organic foods 

• Avoiding seafood from certain countries 

• Believing some foods are healthier than others

Experiences - past experiences 

Positive experiences can increase preference for a food Negative experiences can create food dislikes or avoidance 

Experiences may come from 

• Childhood memories 

• Travel 

• Cultural exposure 

• Sickness after eating a food 

Examples 

• Enjoying foods tried overseas 

• Avoiding foods linked to illness or bad memories

● Social factors, including: 

− traditions and culture 

− lifestyle, eg employment, education, household structures, roles, 

geographic 

location, interests 

− social interaction, eg peer group, family hospitality 

− media 

Traditions And Culture 

Traditions are customs passed down through families, like eating turkey at  Christmas or making dumplings for Lunar New Year. Culture shapes the foods  people grow up with, such as Italians eating pasta or Japanese families eating  sushi. Tradition can limit food choices when ingredients are expensive or  unavailable, like trying to make traditional Middle Eastern dishes in rural areas.  Religious rules can also restrict choices, such as Muslims avoiding pork or  Hindus avoiding beef. 

Lifestyle 

Lifestyle factors like work, education, and family roles affect  

what people eat. Busy jobs can lead to more takeaways, for  

example as nurses grabbing fast food during long shifts.  

Physical jobs like construction require higher-energy foods,  

meaning they need more carbohydrates in order to keep up with  the required energy output. Education influences nutrition  

choices, someone who learns about healthy eating may choose  wholegrain bread over white bread, knowing it's the healthier  

option. 

Family structure matters too, if a teenager cooks dinner, meals might  be simple like pasta or toasties. 

Geographical Location 

Where someone lives affects their access to food. People in cities  have more supermarkets and fresh produce whereas people in remote  areas have limited options and higher prices, for example people in  the Northern territory paying more for fruit and vegetables, as well as  food being less available due to long transport times. 

Interests 

Interest and hobbies influence food choices as much as the  

rest of the factors, athletes may choose protein shakes or  

high-energy meals to support training whereas gamers might  

choose snacks like chips or energy drinks. 

People who enjoy cooking may try new recipes, like making  

homemade ramen or baking sourdough. Travel and online  

content can also inspire people to try foods they might not  

have before, like Korean BBQ or bubble tea.

Social Interaction 

Food is a big part of social life, for example going out for  

pizza with friends or having a BBQ at a family gathering.  

People often copy what their friends eat to fit in, especially  

teenagers choosing the same fast-food place as their  

group. Family hospitality also affects food choices, families  

may order takeaway when they’re busy instead of cooking at  

home. 

Media 

The media influences food choices through advertising  

and trends. TV ads promote products like McDonald’s or  

new snacks, like new flavours of shapes. Social media  

spreads viral foods, such as “TikTok pasta” or loaded  

fries. 

Influencers can make people want to try certain brands,  

like Boost Juice or GYG, by posting reviews or “What I eat  

in a day” videos. Influencers also promote certain foods  

through sponsorships.  

● Economic factors, including: 

− the marketplace (retail and purchasing practices) 

− resource availability such as food processing equipment and food 

preparation skills 

− occupation and finances 

The marketplace (retail and purchasing practices) 

Marketplace refers to the places where consumers purchase food, such as supermarkets, grocery stores, markets,  and online shops. Larger businesses often provide cheaper prices and a greater variety of food because they can buy  products in bulk. Supermarkets also offer convenient “one-stop” shopping, allowing consumers to purchase many  items in one location. Businesses use techniques such as advertising, discounts, and reward cards to encourage  spending and track customer buying patterns. 

Resource availability 

Resources are things people use to achieve goals, including time, money, equipment, and skills. These resources are  limited and can influence food choices and eating habits. For example, people may buy takeaway meals when they do  not have enough time to cook. Kitchen equipment, recipe books, and cooking skills also affect the types of foods  people prepare and eat at home, as better resources can make meal  

preparation easier and more varied. 

Occupation and finances 

A person’s occupation and level of income can strongly influence their  

food choices and eating habits. People with higher incomes are often  

able to purchase more expensive, fresh, and healthier foods, while  

people with lower incomes may choose cheaper food options. Work  

conditions can also affect food choices, as busy or stressful jobs may  

lead people to choose quick and convenient meals, while physically  

demanding jobs may require a higher energy intake.

Preliminary Unit 2 - Food Quality 

Quality food products result from safe and  hygienic handling of food in domestic,  commercial and industrial settings. The  sensory characteristics and functional  properties of food determine the most  appropriate storage, preparation and  presentation techniques used.

Functional Properties of  Food 

Booklet 2 

Textbook Pages 97 - 113

• The role of proteins in denaturing, coagulation, gelation, foaming and  browning 

• Factors that affect the functional properties of food, including: - oxygen 

- temperature 

- acidity 

- agitation 

- enzymes 

- addition of other ingredients 

Protein structure - Proteins are made of 22 different types of amino acids, joined together by  peptide bonds to form peptide chains. Each strand arranges themselves in groups of 3 or 4  in a coil or helix shape. 

Fibrous proteins - an elongated strand coiled in a helix shape, found in meat, poultry and  fish. 

Globular proteins - twisted in a round, compact shape, found in eggs and dairy. 

Denaturation - Denaturation is the  

process of structural change of the  

protein molecules in food. The peptide  

bond breaks, causing the chain to uncoil.  

This is a chemical change and is  

irreversible. This change is often seen in  

the cooking of meat and isn't easy to see  

as it is a chemical change. 

Coagulation - occurs after denaturation and is a more visible process. It occurs when  denatured proteins separate from one another and solidify, before the unravelled protein  strands begin to re-join with other strands and a solid mass is formed. The coagulated  protein strands can build liquids to form gels.

Syneresis - if protein is over-coagulated, they shrink, toughen and force any liquid out. 

Gelation - is the process of gel forming which can occur with either proteins  or carbohydrates. Gelation of proteins occurs when tiny droplets of liquids  become trapped within coagulated proteins. This is seen in foods such as  custards and jellies.

Foaming - proteins in egg whites have an excellent ability to foam  

when denatured by beating. The beaters create spaces for air to enter  and it becomes trapped within the stretched denatured proteins. This  

is seen in foods like meringues, pavlovas and omelettes. 

Browning - Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions such as oxidation that  can occur on the surface of cut fruit, prevented by covering, adding acid, or placing in water.  Myoglobin and haemoglobin are proteins that give meat its colour. An example is the golden  crust on roast meat, cakes, chips and breads. 

ENZYMATIC BROWNING: Enzymes are proteins that  

speed up chemical reactions such as the oxidisation that  

can occur on the surface of cut fruit. This can be prevented  

by covering, adding acid or placing in water. 

OXIDATIVE BROWING OF RED MEAT: Myoglobin and  

haemoglobin are the proteins that give meant it’s red  

colour. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen, it turns  

brown on the outside. High temperatures, freezing  

temperatures, UV light and bacteria speed up oxidative  

browning. 

NON ENZYMATIC BROWNING - MYOGLOBIN BROWNING: When  

myoglobin is heated, it denatures changing the meat from pink to brown  to grey. 

MAILARD REACTION: This reaction occurs when dry heat is applied to  a food that contains a protein and a sugar. An example is the golden  crust of roast meat, cakes, chips and breads.

• The role of carbohydrates in gelatinising, dextrinising, caramelising and  crystallising 

• Factors that affect the functional properties of food, including: - oxygen 

- temperature 

- acidity 

- agitation 

- enzymes 

- addition of other ingredients 

T here are 3 types of Carbohydrates:  

• Polysaccharides – starches, pectin and dietary fibre 

• Disaccharides - sugars 

• Monosaccharides – sugars 

Gelatinisation 

Starch granules in foods form a suspension in cold  

water, but do not dissolve. Gelatinisation is the process  

which occurs when starch granules are heated in  

water, and they then swell and thicken. 

Heating continues until boiling point to ensure it is  

totally gelatinised and to remove the raw flavour of the  

starch. 

Factors affecting gelatinisation: 

1. Kind of starch used – cornflour thickens better than wheat 

flour 

2. Lumpiness will occur if: 

-Flour is blended with a hot liquid 

-Not stirred properly 

-Liquid added all at once 

3. Amount of starch to liquid- more starch the thicker the gel 

4. Presence of an acid will prevent gelling and so has to be  

added after the gel is formed. 

5. Temperature – at least 62ºC to thicken 

6. The presence of sugar slows the process and increases the  

temperature needed to gel the starch. Also produces a softer,  

less stable gel. 

Dextrinization: 

Dextrinization is the browning of starch foods when they are subjected to dry heat. On dry  heating, the polysaccharide starch in the food goes through a chemical reaction and the  starch breaks down into dextrin, causing the product to brown. An example of this is toasting  bread or baking buns. 

The degree of dextrinization depends on the following:

-Length of time heated. (overheating will burn the starch) 

-Type of starch used. 

-Addition of other ingredients e.g. sugar assists in the golden  

colour because of caramelisation. 

-A low temperature will not allow dextrinisation to occur,  

whilst a high temperature will scorch or burn the product. 

Caramelisation: 

Caramelisation is the chemical reaction that occurs when  

high sugar content foods are heated. Any product  

containing sugar may caramelise (change from a natural  

colour to a caramel-brown colour) on heating. 

The degree of change depends on; 

Amount of sugar 

Length of heating time 

Type of sugar 

Addition of other ingredients 

Crystalisation: 

Fruits with a high pectin content include lemons and  

limes. Crystallisation occurs when dry sugar (disaccharide), or sugar dissolved in water, is  heated to produce a syrup and then allowed to cool. It only occurs in a supersaturated  solution. This is a saturation solution which has the maximum amount of solute in it, and is  made to dissolve extra solute through heating. On cooling, the extra solute remains  suspended in the mixture, rather than dissolved. After this, more sugar is added which  causes crystallisation. 

Factors that affect the functional property: 

Temperature – heat causes protein to denature or unravel. The higher the temperature, the quicker the proteins denature and then coagulate or clot eg boiled egg 

Acidity – proteins denature when the pH is less than 7 (acidic), as the acids breaks down the salt bridges between the amino acid strands eg marinated meat in lemon juice 

Agitation – causes protein to denature eg kneading, mixing, whipping or beating. These process stretch the protein strands until they break eg beating egg white 

Enzymes – break down the amino acid bonds to aid in digestion. Also  used in food preparation 

such as enzyme rennin is used to coagulate milk in cheese making. 

Sugar – slows down the coagulation process by protecting the protein.  Eg sugar slows down the 

clotting process of the milk and egg in a custard or a honey glaze on a  baked ham prevents the 

skin from becoming tough. 

Oxygen – drives protein oxidation, and causes the peptide bonds to  

break apart and leads to denaturation coagulation while coagulation  

changes food texture, color, and solubility.

• The role of fats in emulsifying and aerating 

• Factors that affect the functional properties of food, including: - oxygen 

- temperature 

- acidity 

- agitation 

- enzymes 

- addition of other ingredients

Sensory Characteristics  of Food 

Booklet 3 

Textbook Pages 83 - 96

• Sensory characteristics of foods, including appearance, odour, taste (flavour)  and texture (mouth feel) 

Appearance - Food appearance is simply what a particular food looks  like. Your eyes judge your food before your tongue tastes it. The visual  impression tells your brain if the food is safe to eat, the food is fresh and  delicious. Some of the biggest visual factors are the shape, size and  

colour of a meal. For example if you have more of a particular food for  example, a bowl of salad then the person will be more inclined to eat  

that as opposed to a bowl with hardly anything in it. The colour is also  another big visual factor as it can draw in the preference of a buyer and  appeal to them more. 

Sound - The sound of a food affects how you perceive eating it, for example an apple  should have a loud crunch or otherwise it might be “weird”. Also the noises while prepping  the food such as sizzling or popping, these sounds indicate how the food is like before you  eat it. 

Texture(Mouthfeel) - Food texture is how a food feels in your mouth and hands when you  touch, bite, and chew it. It ranges from the hard crunch of a potato chip to the soft melt of ice  cream. Your tongue and teeth quickly sense if a food is juicy or dry, creamy or grainy, and  springy or crumbly. These feelings tell your brain if the food is fresh and satisfying, making  texture just as important as taste.  

Odour - The smell or Aroma of food, this is  

what mainly stimulates the appetite and  

contributes mostly to the flavour of a food.  

For example if you are eating one food and  

smelling another the taste of the food you’re  

eating could become, mixed around or  

different. 

Taste(Flavour) - Taste is what your tongue  

senses when food mixes with your saliva,  

focusing on five basic flavors. These flavors  

are sweet like sugar, sour like a lemon, salty  

like table salt, bitter like dark coffee, and  

umami, which is the savory, rich taste found  

in meat or broth. Your tongue detects these  

distinct notes instantly to help your brain  

decide if a food is safe to swallow, delicious,  

or potentially spoiled. It works closely with  

your sense of smell to create the full, rich  

flavor of every bite you take

• Sensory assessment of a variety of food 

• Utilising the 5 senses to analyse a food product 

• Quality Assurance process → Proactive approach to assess whether customers will  receive a safe, and good quality product 

Preference Tests 

• Used to determine likes and dislikes 

• Subjective (Changes per person) 

• Includes: Hedonic descriptors → (Unpleasant +  

Pleasant Reactions) 

• Can be completed on a scale from one to ten, or  

an emoji ranking 

Example: 

• Ranking a biscuit a 5/5 or a �� 

Discrimination Tests 

• Used to determine whether consumers  

can distinguish between samples 

• Use specific attributes e.g Crunchiness  

or smoothness of a peanut butter 

Types of Discrimination tests: 

• Paired Comparison: (Discriminate  

between 2 products) 

• Triangle test: 3 samples, 2 same, 1  

different 

• ⅖ test: 5 samples, 3 same, 2 different 

• Ranking Test: Ranking in order of  

characteristics 

Example: 

• 2 coke, 1 pepsi 

Profiling Tests 

• Intensity of a range of sensory characteristics  

of a food to be recorded 

• Used when manufacturers compare their  

products with competitors 

Example: 

• Spiciness + Saltiness of a humus

Safe Preparation and  Presentation of Food 

Booklet 4 

Textbook Pages 66 - 82*

• Equipment and utensils to produce quality food products across a range of  settings 

Utensil: A small handheld tool that is designed for a  

particular task in preparing food. 

E.g. A wooden spoon to stir a cake mixture 

Equipment: Larger tools and appliances designed  

to prepare and cook food 

E.g. Cake tin and oven to cook the cake  

• Safe and hygienic work practices when handling food 

Safe Work Practices: Safe Work practices are implemented to prevent injuries to a  person or property. These include burns, cuts, slips/falls, and other potential injuries. Some examples are: 

• Use correct manual-handling techniques such as bending knees or using a  trolley when lifting heavy objects. 

• Safely use hazardous equipment, such as sharp knives, hot appliances or  electric cooking tools. 

• Identify, remove or control hazards from your own work area. 

• Have easy access to first aid.

Hygienic Work Practises: 

Hygienic work practices are enforced to maintain a sustained quality of food to serve  to customers, this is through not only the food handler being clean, but also the  environment that the food is cooked or prepared in. Using hygienic work practices  reduces the risk of customers getting ill, injured, or experiencing serious health  complications due to food poisoning. 

Examples of hygienic work practices include: 

• Washing hands before handling food 

• Covering cuts with bandaids 

• Wearing gloves over long fingernails 

• Not cooking when feeling unwell 

Physical contamination: Is caused by foreign objects such as: 

• Hair 

• Dirt/Dust 

• Pests 

• Jewellery 

Can result in injury such as choking or damage to the gastrointestinal tract To PREVENT this: 

1. Dispose of foods infected with pests 

2. Undertake regular pest control 

3. Cover hair 

4. Wash fruits and vegetables before use 

Chemical contamination: Occurs when chemicals such as: 

• Fly spray 

• Detergent 

• Herbicides 

• Pesticides 

Get into food 

Chemicals can be poisonous to the body 

To PREVENT this: 

1. Keep chemicals away from food 

2. Use safe chemicals to wash, sanitise and clean equipment 

3. Wash fresh fruits and vegetables before use 

Microbiological contamination: 

Microbes: Single-celled organisms that multiply rapidly in the right conditions to spoil  food 

These include: Moulds, yeasts, bacteria and viruses.

Moulds and yeasts can be destroyed by: Heating to 60°C for 10 minutes 

People more affected to food poisoning: 

• Elderly 

• Pregnant women 

• Children 

• People with a chronic illness or allergy 

Types of food poisoning: 

Cross contamination: The transfer of food causing bacteria to spread from one  source to another source 

• Particularly dangerous when harmful bacteria from raw foods transfer to  ready-to-serve foods 

• Bacteria can be transferred via hands, a cloth, utensil or a drop of blood 

The Danger Zone: 

• Between 5°C-60°C 

• Foods should not stay in the danger zone for longer than 1 HOUR • Under 4°C microorganisms are asleep/dormant, as the temperature  increases, they begin to “wake up” and reproduce

• Layout of food for visual appeal, including styling for photography and plating  for service 

Layout of food for visual appeal 

• Why do we layout food for visual appeal: To trigger psychological hunger, and alter  actual taste perception 

• What is food styling: Food styling is the art of preparing, arranging, and modifying food to  make it look appealing and delicious to consume– making it look fresh for photographs • Decoration: Item added to food to improve its appearance e.g. edible flowers,  

chocolate curls  

• A decoration can make a dish look more appealing to the visual eye it can be seen as  drizzles and the placement of foods 

• Garnish: An edible item added to food to enhance its appearance, flavour or texture e.g.  parsley, coriander, grated cheese 

• Garnishing food can add colour when a dish looks bland 

• Using contrasting colours make it look natural and not clash with anything to look  similar 

-Plating food 

• -The clock plating style is when they use the  

plate as reference of a clock. For example, the  

meat is placed at the 6 o'clock position and the  

vegetables are arranged at ten o’clock  

throughout to two o’clock 

Styling for Photography and plating service 

• Examples of where a food photographer can  

display their work: Social media, Restaurant  

menus, Cook books 

• Tools you would find in a food stylists toolbox: Tweezers, small paintbrush, spray  bottle, kitchen scissors, toothpick skewers 

1,180 × 66

• Preparation methods to produce food products across a range of settings

Safe Storage of Food Review Questions 

Textbook Pages 52 - 65

• Methods of storing foods to maintain quality such as dry storage, cold storage  and freezing 

Food spoilage: Food that has deteriorated in quality 

→ Decomposed foods should not be consumed as they are not safe to eat as they may  contain harmful micro-organisms e.g. fungus. If food is contaminated, for example a  blemished apple, either cut away the spot or discard. 

Shelf life: The expected length of time a food will maintain its best quality 

Use by: After this date, the food should not be consumed because of safety concerns Best before: The food is at its highest quality before this date 

FIFO (First in First Out): A method used in inventory management where the oldest items  in stock are assumed to be sold or used first. This approach is commonly used for  perishable goods or items where freshness or obsolescence is a concern. 

Correct food storage maintains the best colour, flavour, texture and nutritional value of the  food and ensures the safety from harmful micro-organisms

The Food Act 2003 (NSW) requires all businesses to make sure the food they serve is safe to eat. It is an offence to: 

• Store food at the wrong temperature 

• Have unclean food and storage areas 

• Store foods in a way which encourages cross contamination 

• Not keep records of delivery times, food storage temperatures and cleaning  schedules

Nutrition: 

Digestion: The process of breaking food down into smaller traces to be absorbed by the body

Absorption: Nutrients from digested foods are absorbed by the body and sent into the bloodstream.

Metabolism: Chemical processes that turn nutrients from food into energy to be transported to where it is needed in the body.

Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDI’s): The recommended amount of nutrients needed for different age groups.

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR):  Minimum amount of calories that ur body burns just for survival

Nutrition: The process of consuming food for energy and for bone and muscle tissue healing.

Undernutrition: the process of an individual having deficiencies or a lack of nutrients and energy

Overnutrition: When an individual consumes more than the recommended nutrients they are  meant to eat, which can lead to cases of obesity.

Malnutrition: when an individual does not consume the recommended amount of nutrients which can lead to a lack of energy 

What is Nutrition?

Nutrition is the study of the composition of food and how the body uses the substances contained

in foods.

Foods are made up of different chemical substances. These substances are called nutrients.

Nutrients have their own unique function in the body including nourishment for growth, energy,

metabolism or reproduction.

We need to obtain nutrients from food, as they cannot be made by the body.

The Six Nutrients

The substances that the body must get from food to sustain life are

called nutrients.

There are more than 50 nutrients that can be arranged into six

groups according to their similarity of their chemical structure or

their function.

The six nutrient groups are:

1. Carbohydrates

2. Proteins

3. Lipids/Fats

4. Vitamins

5. Minerals

6. Water

Macronutrients:

Macro-nutrients are those required by the body in relatively large amounts, such as protein, carbohydrates and lipids. Their 2 main functions are to supply energy and to help grow and maintain body tissues.

Micro-nutrients 

Micronutrients are those required in smaller amounts, such as vitamins and minerals. Their main role is to ensure the body has a strong immune system, but they perform many other functions.

Benefits of a balanced diet

A balanced diet provides all the necessary food nutrients in the correct proportions

and quantities to meet our nutritional requirements. This can be done by eating a wide variety of foods or “eating the rainbow”.

Main Function Of Nutrients:

1. To provide energy

2. To build, maintain and repair body tissue

3. To protect and regulate body processes

Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates are compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen to a ratio of 1:2:1. They are classified according to their structure as follows:

Monosaccharides – simplest form, made up of single molecules eg glucose, galactose and

fructose. They are building blocks for the other sugars

Disaccharides – consist of 2 monosaccharides eg sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose

(glucose + galactose) and maltose (glucose + glucose)

Polysaccharides – made from many monosaccharides eg starch, dextrins or glycogen, dietary

fibre, pectin and gum

Types of carbohydrates:

• Carbohydrates can be classified as simple or complex carbohydrates

• Simple carbohydrates have a simple chemical structure consisting of one or two molecules. Examples include: glucose, fructose, galactose, sucrose, lactose and  maltose.

• Complex Carbohydrates have a more complex structure, containing two or more molecules linked together. Examples include: starch, glycogen and fibre.

Sources OF Carbohydrates:

1. Unprocessed fruit eg; apples, grapes, watermelon

2. Vegetables eg; potatoes

3. Cereals eg; rice, pasta, bread

Best Sources Of Fibre:

• Wholegrain cereals

• Pasta

• Bread

•  fruits and vegetables especially with the skin on

•  brown rice and wholemeal flour

• and grains

Carbohydrates Functions

Carbohydrates are the primary fuel or energy source.

The body needs energy for breathing, regulating body temperature, keeping the heart

pumping and ensuring all the organs are functioning.

Most plants manufacture carbohydrates through photosynthesis.

The body converts carbohydrates into glucose.

The glucose is stored in the liver and muscles until it is needed for energy.

Carbohydrates also provide fibre for a healthy digestive tract and bowels and prevent

constipation

If insufficient carbohydrates, the body will use protein for energy

Deficiency or excess

Deficiency of carbohydrates can lead to weight loss or in severe cases, starvation.

Excess consumption of carbohydrates can lead to weight gain and diabetes.

Protein Structure

Proteins are found in all living things. It is one of the most

abundant components of the body, second only to water.

Proteins are made up from amino acids and vary due to the

different combinations of amino acids contained in them.

The basis of all amino acids are the elements Carbon,

Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen.

There are twenty amino acids, which have nutritional

significance in the body. They are classified as either essential

or non-essential. They are classified as essential as the body

cannot make them. There are 9 essential amino acids.

Food sources of protein

The 9 essential amino acids must be obtained from foods.

Protein food containing all of the 8 essential amino acids are called High

Biological Value (HBV) proteins or complete proteins.

Complete proteins are mainly found in animal foods such as red meat,

eggs, milk, cheese, fish, poultry and the plant foods soy beans, quinoa and

buckwheat,

Protein foods lacking at least one amino acid are called Low Biological

Value (LBV) proteins or incomplete proteins.

Incomplete proteins are found in cereals,

legumes, nuts and vegetables.

Incomplete proteins can be combined to form

complete proteins eg rice with dahl, hummus

=-==--and pita bread, beans on toast, rice and fish.

Protein Sources

Animal sources:

1. Meat eg; beef, pork, lamb and veal

2. Chicken

3. Fish

4. Eggs

5. milk and dairy products

Some plant sources:

1. Soya beans

2. Legumes such as beans, peas, lentils

Protein Functions:

1. For growth of body cells to form tissues, eg; muscles, bones, teeth, skin, blood

2. For repair and replacement of damaged cells eg; to heal a cut, bruise or broken bone or to replace damaged skin

3. To form chemical substances in the body eg;

• Antibodies

• Enzymes

• Hormones

• Haemoglobin

• Myoglobin

• To supply heat and energy

Protein deficiencies:

A lack of protein in the diet may result in:

• Slow or retarded growth

• Slow healing or recovery from illness

• Lowered resistance to infection

• Oedema or swelling of the tissues

Lipids:

• Fats and oils are known as lipids.

• They have the same chemical structure, but their physical appearance differs.

• Fats are solid at room temperature and oils are liquid.

• Lipids are present in food in either a ‘visible’ or ‘invisible’ form.

• Visible fat – easy to see eg fat on meat, butter, margarine

• Invisible fat – part of food and is difficult to see eg fat in pastry, cakes and biscuits

Lipids Structure:

• Lipids, or fats, are the most concentrated source of energy available for the body

1. Lipids include;

2. Fatty acids

3. Triglycerides

4. Phospholipids that transport fats around the body

5. Sterols that are important in manufacturing hormones in the body

• Lipids are called oils when they are liquid at room temperature and fats if they are solid at room temperature. They are made up of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.

Fatty Acids

There are 3 types of fatty acids:

1. Saturated fatty acids – are straight molecules and so are firm eg; beef dripping. They

cannot take anymore Hydrogen and there are no double bonds. They occur in animal

and vegetable foods (fatty meats, dairy foods, chocolate, biscuits, palm oil). They can

cause heart disease as they increase “bad” low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol

2. Monounsaturated fatty acids – are short chains with one double bond. They are soft fats or oils eg; olive oil, avocado, canola and peanut oils. Contain High Density Lipoproteins (HDL) which helps to reduce LDL in the body.

3. Polyunsaturated fatty acids –have more than one double bond. Found mainly in vegetables ,  polyunsaturated margarine, nuts and seeds

Trans-fatty acids:

• Type of polyunsaturated fat

• Created by adding hydrogen to artificially harden them

• Can increase the risk of heart disease, rheumatoid arthritis and some cancers

• Increase the levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood and may reduce the good HDL cholesterol

• Often listed on labels as hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated oils

Essential Fatty Acids:

• There are specific polyunsaturated fats that are vital for health and cannot be made in the body. These are called Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs).

• The 2 main EFAs are Omega-3 (linolenic acid) and Omega – 6 (linoleic acid)

• Omega-3 reduces the risk of blood clots forming, therefore reducing heart attack risk and could reduce  the risk of rheumatoid arthritis

• Omega-6 helps to reduce LDL cholesterol, but too much could decrease the good HDL cholesterol

Food Sources of Lipids:

Animal sources:

• Fat on meat, lard,

• Oily fish like tuna, salmon and mullet

• Eggs

• Dairy foods

Plant sources:

• Olives

• canola seeds

• sesame seeds and sunflower seeds

• Nuts

• Avocado

More Food Sources of Lipids:

• Processed foods are high in fat

• Chocolate

• Fried foods

• Pastries, cakes, biscuits

Cholesterol is found in animal products

• Meat

• Eggs

• Dairy

Functions of lipids:

1. Major source of energy → Fats are the most concentrated source of energy providing 37kJ/g.

2. Provide essential fatty acids →  Linoleic and linolenic fatty acids cannot be made in the body

3. Provide fat soluble vitamins → Carries vitamins A,D,E and K

4. Protection for vital organs

5. Insulate against extreme temperatures

6. Provide satiety

Fat Deficiency and Excess:

A deficiency is usually related to a digestion problem

eg; coeliac disease

Increase in fat consumption may lead to:

• Increased incidence of overweight and obesity

• Coronary heart disease

• Cancer of breast and colon

• Diabetes

• Hypertension (high blood pressure)

Vitamins:

• Vitamins are complex chemicals required by the body in small amounts. The body is unable to synthesise and are required in the diet for the body to function well.

• They are known by a letter eg; Vitamin A

• Excess intake can be harmful

• Smoking and drinking alcohol will affect vitamin absorption

• Deficiency is rare but is often found in poor people, the elderly or people with eating disorders

• Classified according to their solubility in FAT eg; ADEK or WATER eg; B and C

• Some are classified as ‘essential non-nutrients’ and others act as antioxidants.

Water Soluble Vitamins

Fat soluble vitamins

Antioxidant Vitamins 

• Have an important effect on our health

• They ward off free radicals, which are random atoms resulting from the body’s use of oxygen, such as for breathing and digestion.

• Free radicals can form a chain reaction that may lead to serious damage to the cells resulting in heart disease or some cancers.

• Antioxidants form a defence system against the free radicals

• They occur in a wide variety of foods.

Health Benefits Of Antioxidants

1. Reduces risk of chronic diseases eg heart disease, some cancers, disorders of the

intestine and reduce damage to body cells and tissues

2. Maintain a healthy immune system by destroying the free radicals which attack the

body’s natural defence system

3. Reduce the harmful oxidation of fats in the body by preventing free radicals oxidising polyunsaturated fatty acids, preventing cell damage and slowing the rate at which LDL

cholesterol is deposited on the artery walls thus reducing heart disease

4. Often found in fruits and vegetables which include fibre which can prevent bowel cancer and obesity

Minerals:

1. Minerals are chemicals that occur naturally. They are used by the body in all tissues and fluids. They are needed in small amounts but are essential for good health and are not synthesised by the body.

2. Some minerals are needed in larger amounts than others (macro-minerals) e.g. calcium, phosphorus, iron and sodium.

3. Others are needed in small amounts and are called trace elements. These include iodine, zinc, copper and fluorine.

4. A healthy, balanced diet will ensure the body receives all the minerals it needs.

Functions Of Minerals

1. FLUORINE – for proper tooth development

2. ZINC- for normal cell growth and for healing

3. COPPER- works with iron and especially aids the use of other nutrients

4. MAGNESIUM – for bones and teeth and normal muscle action

5. POTASSIUM – for water balance and normal muscle action

6. COBALT - for formation of red blood cells

7. CALCIUM – strengthens bones and teeth, also involved in nerve and muscle function

8. PHOSPHORUS – works with calcium to build stronger bones and teeth

9. IRON – involved in carrying oxygen to the cells where it is needed to make energy

10. SODIUM – works with potassium to maintain fluid balance, and making muscles contract and relax

Functions and sources of macro minerals:

Functions and sources of micro minerals:

Water

1. Water is essential for life – about 70% of

2. The body is made up of water.

3. Water is important in the body for:

4. Transports nutrients around the body

5. Excretes waste as urine

6. Regulates body temperature

7. Forms parts of blood, body secretions and digestive juices

8. Acts as a lubricant to joints

9. It is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 2:1(H2O)

10. Deficiency may lead to kidney stones and constipation

Sources of water:

1. Water can be found in both food and beverages.

2. Meat contains 50-60% water

3. Fruits and vegetables contain up to 95% water

4. The metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates produces some water

5. At least half the fluid consumed daily should be in the form of plain water

Water rich foods:

How Much Water Do We Need:

1. 6 to 8 glasses of water per day is required

2. More may be needed on hot or humid days

3. Playing sport also requires more water consumption

Interrelationships Of Nutrients:

1. Iron and Vitamin C → Vitamin C increases the rate of iron absorption

2. Iron and Fibre → Iron is important for the formation of red blood cells. However, fibre can reduce the body’s absorption of Iron

3. Calcium/Phosphorus/Vitamin D → Vitamin D improves the absorption of Calcium. Calcium and Phosphorus are needed for the formation and functioning of bones

4. Calcium and lactose → Lactose increases the calcium absorption during digestion

5. Lactose increases the calcium absorption during digestion → For those with lactose intolerance, phosphorus and Vitamin D will help calcium absorption

6. Calcium and Fibre →  The absorption of calcium may be reduced when a meal is high in acids found in fibre

7. Sodium and Potassium → Sodium and Potassium work together to maintain osmotic pressure within cells, relax and contract muscles, transfer nerve pulses and control the pH of the body.

8. Energy and Vitamin B → The B group vitamins form a part of the co-enzymes which enable the release of carbohydrates and lipids

Digestion:

• Digestion is the complex process of breaking down the food eaten into nutrients, which the body absorbs for fuel to survive.

• The digestion process also involves creating and eliminating waste.

The Digestive Process:

• Digestion involves both the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.

• Mechanical breakdown occurs through chewing and peristalsis.

• Chemical breakdown occurs as secretions and enzymes react with food.

The Basic Functions of the Digestive System:

Ingestion → taking nutrients into the body, i.e., eating

Digestion → the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into a usable form

Absorption→  takes place when the broken-down food components move from the gut into the blood and

lymphatic systems of the body and so the nutrients go to where it is needed

Excretion → the removal of solid waste from the body

Metabolism

• Metabolism – includes all chemical processes that use nutrients to make other substances. The 2 types of metabolism are: catabolism and anabolism.

• Catabolism →  occurs when nutrients are broken down to their components, usually for energy or to make other substances eg during starvation

• Anabolism →  is when new substances are made from the components derived from catabolism eg forming new protein for muscle growth and repair

The Digestive System:

• The gastrointestinal tract is a long twisting tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. It is made up of muscles that moves food and coordinates enzymes and hormones to help break down food.

• Along the way are three other organs that are needed for digestion are the liver, gall bladder and pancreas.

The Digestive Organs:

1. Mouth

2. Oesophagus

3. Stomach

4. Small Intestines

5. Large Intestines

6. Rectum

M1. Mouth:

Digestion starts here

Mechanical digestion-chewing or

“mastication”

Chemical digestion-digestion of

carbohydrates

2. Oesophagus

Muscular tube located behind the

trachea

About 10 inches long

Transports food from the pharynx

to the stomach

Upper and Lower oesophageal

Sphincters

3. Stomach

J-shaped pouch located below the

diaphragm

Chemical digestion of protein occurs in

the stomach due to gastric juice

secretion

Mechanical digestion occurs in the

stomach due to maceration (churning).

Three layers of muscles in the

stomach create the movement of

Maceration.

4. Small intestines:

Chemical digestion of nutrients and absorption of

nutrients is completed in the small intestines

Three divisions of the small intestines:

Duodenum – first portion of the small intestine

where most of the chemical digestion occurs.

Jejunum – middle portion of the small intestine

where most of the absorption of nutrients

occurs.

Ileum – final portion of the

The small intestine is where absorption occurs.

Peristalsis:

When you swallow food, it doesn't just drop down into your

stomach. Muscles contract in a wave-like motion to move

the food along through the digestive tract. This muscle

movement is called peristalsis, or peristaltic waves. These

peristaltic waves contract behind the food bolus pushing it

along the digestive tract. In the small intestine, peristaltic

waves not only move food along the intestine, but also mix

the food chyme to help in the digestive process.

Large Intestines:

The large intestines are the last

part of the digestive system.

Absorption of water, vitamins,

electrolytes, production of

vitamin K, and formation of

faeces occurs in the large

intestines

Rectum:

The last portion of the large intestine which

functions as a temporary storage of solid

wastes before excretion.

Digestion of Lipids

Fat digestion starts slowly in the mouth with lipase in saliva.

Churning occurs in the stomach to break down the fats with

lipase, but most digestion is in the small intestine. Here, the

bile(made in liver but stored in gall bladder) emulsifies the fat

molecules to break down to monoglycerides.

Digested triglycerides can be absorbed directly into

the bloodstream and then used or stored.

Digestion of Proteins:

Proteins are crushed and churned in the mouth

but most digestion takes place in the stomach.

Protein is denatured by the stomach acids for

pepsin to digest proteins down to amino acids.

In the small intestines, proteases and peptidases

further break down the proteins.

Amino acids are carried to the intestinal cells and

used for energy or to make proteins. Unused

amino acids are transported to the liver to make

hormones, enzymes and muscle tissues

Digestion of Carbohydrates:

Amylase in saliva breaks down carbohydrates in the

mouth. The small intestine performs most of the

digestion of carbohydrates. Pancreatic amylase

breaks down all polysaccharides and disaccharides

into monosaccharides, mostly glucose. Absorption

occurs in the small intestine where the blood from the

liver takes up the simple sugars and converts them to

other compounds.

Digestion Of Vitamins:

Fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E and K) require fats to carry them via

the bloodstream to the liver and other fatty tissues

Water soluble vitamins (B and C) are digested and carried into

the bloodstream

Small intestine is the main site for digestion and absorption

Vitamin C is excreted in the urine and Vitamin B are bound to

proteins and need to be broken down by stomach acids and so

need to be consumed daily.

Fat soluble vitamins do not need to be consumed daily

Digestion of Minerals:

Absorption takes place in the small

intestines.

Once absorbed, they are sent to

the required areas of the body.

Consuming large amounts of

minerals can be toxic

Digestion Of Dietary Fibres:

Fibre is a polysaccharide which cannot be broken

down in the digestive system.

In the mouth, saliva moistens it for swallowing.

In the stomach, fibre delays gastric emptying

which aids in satiety.

In large intestine, insoluble fibre aids in the

formation of excrement, binding unwanted

wastes to excrete from the body.

Nutritional needs throughout the life cycle:

Factors Affecting Nutritional Needs:

• Age

• Body size

• Gender

• Body composition

• Health status

• Physical activity

• pregnancy/ lactation

Nutritional Needs For Pregnant People:

• During pregnancy, a woman needs food for the development of the foetus and her own health

• The foetus takes the nutrients first, so if not consuming enough, the mother will be deficient.

• Alcohol, smoking and spicy foods should be avoided.

• Extra protein and carbohydrates are needed.

• Extra Vitamins B, especially Folate (B9) and C .

• Extra Iron is needed for baby’s blood and Calcium for their bones and teeth.

• More lipids to supply the essential fatty acids.

Lactation:

• Lactation or breastfeeding is more demanding than pregnancy.

• Mother requires more energy and protein to produce breast milk.

• Anything eaten by the mother will be present in the milk, so mothers have to be careful about what they eat and drink.

Infancy (Birth to 1 year):

• Period of rapid growth – baby will triple its weight.

• Breast or Bottle until approx. 6 months.

• Breast milk contains colostrum for antibodies.

• Breast milk is the best option as it contains the correct nutrients.

• Extra protein, energy and minerals are needed.

• Blended or pureed foods are slowly introduced.

• Need to look out for allergies and intolerances.

• Salt, sugar and other flavourings are not recommended.

• Colostrum contains the nutrients needed by a newborn. It helps protect against infections and supports the development of a baby’s digestive system. 

Toddlers (1-3 years):

• Growth rate has slowed.

• A steady supply of protein, vitamins and minerals and carbohydrates.

• At least 3 cups of milk (yoghurt/cheese) and 1 serving of meat each day.

• Vegan diet is not recommended as lack of iron, B12 and calcium may result.

• Fussy eating can be an issue.

Childhood (4-8 Years):

Pre-schoolers:

• Protein for maintenance and growth

• High levels of calcium and iron

• High energy foods that contain complex carbohydrates

• They are often picky eaters

School-aged children:

• Greater amounts of B group vitamins

• Low saturated fats

• Macro-nutrients needed for growth

• Nutritious breakfast

• Calcium, phosphorus and vitamins A,D, and C for dental health

• Childhood obesity is a concern

Puberty (9-13 years)

• Time of rapid growth and physical change which is the beginning of adolescence.

• On average males grow by 20cm and females by 15cm, with males gaining 20kg and females 16kg.

• Energy needs dramatically increase and good protein is necessary. A balanced diet with lots of variety is important.

Older Adolescence (14-18 years):

• Growth tends to slow and energy needs decrease especially if the person is leading a sedentary lifestyle.

• Teenagers are now making their own choices and peers groups and social media may influence their food choices

Adulthood (19-30 years):

• Maintenance is key to optimum nutrition.

• Energy intake should not exceed energy expenditure

• Protein is needed to maintain muscle tissue.

• Minerals are needed to strengthen and maintain bones and teeth.

Middle Ages (31-60 Years)

• Maintenance is key to optimum nutrition.

• Energy intake should not exceed energy expenditure

• Protein is needed to maintain muscle tissue.

• Minerals are needed to strengthen and maintain bones and teeth.

Senior Years (60+ years):

• Less active and mobile

• Low salt requirement to prevent hypertension (high blood pressure)

• Physical stressors such as alcohol or injury and psychological stressors such as work stress or grief, can drain the body making it more vulnerable

• Antioxidants, found in fresh fruits and vegetable, may slow the ageing process

Food Selection Gifts:

Meal Planning Considerations:

1. Who will be eating the meal?

2. What resources are available?

3. When will the meal be prepared?

4. What will be eaten?

6 Basic Principles of Planning a Diet: (All Big Eaters Need More Vegetables):

1. Adequacy

2. Balance

3. Energy control

4. Nutrient density

5. Moderation

6. Variety 

Adequacy:

• Concerned with ensuring enough energy and essential nutrients are consumed.

• Need to find the balance between too much and too little food

• Following guidelines underpinned by detailed scientific research, such as the Australian Dietary Guidelines and NRV (replaces the RDI) will help this.

Balance:

• Involves developing an understanding of the foods and what nutrients they provide.

• Some goods work well together eg; lentils with dairy for protein and calcium needs

• But all nutrients need to be consumed

Energy Control:

• Energy is needed for basic metabolic reactions and physical activity

• Excess is stored as adipose (fat) tissue

• Don’t need to count kilojoules but be aware of high kilojoule foods and their nutrient value eg; avocado has the same KJ as a piece of chocolate but more vitamins and minerals

Nutrient Density:

• Nutrient dense foods are those foods that have a high dose of nutrients with a lower amount of kilojoules eg fruit, vegetables, breads and cereals

• Knowledge of this encourages good food selection eg cheese and yoghurt have the same

calcium levels but different kilojoule level

• Choose nutrient dense foods rather than empty kilojoule foods eg lollies, chips and soft drinks

Moderation:

• Nutrient dense foods are those foods that have a high dose of nutrients with a lower amount of

kilojoules eg fruit, vegetables, breads and cereals

• Knowledge of this encourages good food selection eg cheese and yoghurt have the same calcium levels but different kilojoule level

• Choose nutrient dense foods rather than empty kilojoule foods eg lollies, chips and soft drinks

Variety:

• A variety in the diet improves nutritional adequacy.

• Adds to satiety and enjoyment of meals

• Eat a rainbow’ of foods

• Variety is the spice of life

Energy Requirements In The Body:

Energy:

• Our bodies need energy to maintain all of its essential processes.

• The minimal amount of energy that your body needs to maintain normal body processes is called the Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

• When you eat, your body needs extra energy to digest the food. This is called the Thermic Effect of Food (TEF)

• The daily energy requirements is the sum of BMR, TEF and the energy required for activity.

Factors Affecting BMR:

• Amount of lean muscle increases the BMR

• Body size

• Gender

• Age

• Pregnancy and lactation

• Illness and fever increases the BMR

• Physical activity

Energy Supplied:

• Energy is measured in kilojoules (kJ).

• These nutrients supply the following amount of energy per gram:

• Lipids – 37kJ

• Alcohol – 29kJ

• Protein – 17kJ

• Carbohydrates – 17kJ

Energy Balance:

• To maintain weight:

• Energy intake = energy expended + stored energy

• If energy intake is greater than the energy expended, a person will gain weight.

• The National Health and Medical Research Council has provided recommendations on how much energy a person requires. They range from 7000 – 14000kJ/day