Exhaustive English Grammar Study Guide

The Past Perfect Tense

• Definition and Usage: The Past Perfect is used to express an action or fact that occurred in the past before another action that also happened in the past. It is essentially the "past of the past."
• Structure and Examples:
  • Example 1: The patient had already died when the doctor arrived at the hospital.
  • Example 2: When I arrived at the bus station, the bus had already left.
• Common Adverbs and Indicators: The Past Perfect is frequently introduced with words such as:
  • when
  • by the time
  • already
  • never
  • ever
  • just
  • before
  • after
  • until
• Specific Illustrations:
  • Example: I had just finished lunch when my friends arrived.
  • Example: Before she went to the mall, she had gone to the bank.
  • Example: He asked me if I had ever seen a live snake.
  • Example: By the time she called, I had gone to work.
  • Example: I didn't leave until I had spoken to the manager of the bank.
• Sentence Formations (Affirmative, Interrogative, Negative):
  • Affirmative: He had quit his job already.
  • Interrogative: Had he quit his job yet?
  • Negative: He hadn't quit his job yet.
  • Affirmative: She had quit school already.
  • Interrogative: Had she quit school yet?
  • Negative: She hadn't quit school yet.

Interrogative Pronouns (Question Words)

• Overview: In English, interrogatives are known as "question words."
• Main Pronouns and Examples:
  • Who (Subject: quem - sujeito):
    • Example: Who is that pretty girl?
    • Example: Who told you about the accident?
    • Example: Who was talking to you?
  • Whom (Object: quem - objeto):
    • Example: Whom did you meet at the party?
    • Example: Whom did Rosa go with?
    • Example: Whom were you talking to?
    • Usage Tip: Use "Who" if the word can be replaced with "he/she." Use "Whom" if it can be replaced with "him/her."
    • Example Comparison: "Who/Whom did you call?" (→ You called him → use "Whom"). "Who/Whom called you?" (→ He called you → use "Who").
  • Whose (Possession: de quem):
    • Example: Whose book is this?
    • Example: Whose bikes are those?
    • Example: Whose camera is that?
  • Which (Choice/Options: qual, quais):
    • Example: Which of those cars is yours?
    • Example: Which are the easiest lessons?
    • Example: Which shirt do you prefer? The blue one or the red one?
  • What (General: o que, que, qual):
    • Example: What does he like to do for fun?
    • Example: What time is it now?
    • Example: What kind of food do you like?
    • Example: What is your best friend like?
  • Where (Place: onde):
    • Example: Where is the teacher?
    • Example: Where are we going tonight?
    • Example: Where are your parents from?
  • Why (Reason: por que):
    • Example: Why did he run away?
    • Example: Why don't you pick her up?
    • Example: Why did she throw up?
  • When (Time: quando):
    • Example: When were you born?
    • Example: When did she arrive?
    • Example: When will you travel abroad?
  • How (Manner: como):
    • Example: How will you teach your children?
    • Example: How did you get to the hospital?
    • Example: How is your family doing?
• Extended "How" Phrases:
  • How old: Quality / age (quantos anos).
  • How long: Duration (quanto tempo).
  • How much: Quantity for uncountable (quanto - singular).
  • How many: Quantity for countable (quantos - plural).
  • How deep: Depth (qual profundidade).
  • How far: Distance (qual distncia).
  • How tall: Height for people (qual altura - pessoas).
  • How high: Height for things (qual altura - coisas).
  • How often: Frequency (qual frequncia).
  • How smart: Intelligence (quo inteligente/esperto).

Relative Pronouns

• Function: Relative pronouns replace a noun already mentioned in a previous clause.
• Key Pronouns and Usage:
  • Who (Subject referring to people): "The boys who were playing outside are my cousins from California."
  • Whom (Object referring to people): "The writer whom they admire is Australian."
  • Which (Animals and things): "The dress which Susan was wearing was very fancy."
  • That (People, animals, and things): "The pen that is on the desk belongs to Mrs. White."
  • Where (Places): "The hotel where we stayed was very nice and not so expensive."
  • When (Time: days, months): "I'll always remember the day when I beat him for the first time."
  • What (A specific thing): "I won't tell anybody what happened here tonight."
  • Whose (Possessed thing - cujo/cuja/cujos/cujas): "The man whose daughter I met is a tennis professional."

Indefinite Pronouns

• General Property: Refer to people, things, or quantities in a non-specific way.
• Group 1: Some, Any, No, None:
  • Some (algum, um pouco): Used in affirmative sentences.
    • Example: Some words are difficult to remember.
    • Exception: Used in interrogatives for offers or requests. "Would you like some apples?"
    • Compounds: Somebody/Someone, Something, Somewhere, Somehow/Someway.
  • Any (algum, nenhum, qualquer): Used in interrogatives and negatives.
    • Example (Interrogative): Do you have any eggs to lend me?
    • Example (Negative): I don't have any money.
    • Exception 1: Used in affirmatives with the meaning of "any" (qualquer). "Anyone can do that!"
    • Exception 2: Used in affirmatives involving "if." "If you have any questions, please give me a call."
    • Compounds: Anybody/Anyone, Anything, Anywhere, Anyhow/Anyway.
  • No (adj.) and None (sub.): Mean "nenhum/nenhuma" and are used only in affirmative structures.
    • Example: I have no money. / I have none.
    • Self-Correction (Double Negatives): English does not allow double negatives. "There is nothing in the fridge" OR "There isn't anything in the fridge."
  • Compounds: Nobody/No one, Nothing, Nowhere.
• Group 2: The Idea of a Set:
  • Every: Each, every. "Every person has the right to live."
  • All: All, everything. "I've waited for you all day."
  • Each: Each one. "I gave a task to each of the kids."
  • Either (one): One or the other (um ou outro).
  • Neither (one): Not one nor the other (nem um nem outro).
  • Other: Outro (others = outros).
  • Another: More one, a different one (um outro, mais um).
  • Enough: Sufficiently (bastante, suficiente).
• Verb Agreement:
  • Most indefinites take singular verbs: "Everybody is here," "Everything is alright."
  • For "All," the verb agrees with the following noun: "All the students are here," "All my money is invested."
  • Modern usage of "They": "If someone wants to join, they should contact us" is preferred over "he or she."

Quantifiers (Much, Many, Little, Few, Less, Fewer)

• Much vs. Many:
  • Much: Used before uncountable nouns (singular). "I don't have much money."
  • Many: Used before plural countable nouns. "There aren't many cars."
  • Usage Rule: In affirmative sentences, replacements like "a lot of," "lots of," or "plenty of" are preferred over much/many.
• How Much/How Many:
  • Interrogative forms follow the same countable/uncountable rules: "How much money?" / "How many people?"
• Little vs. Few:
  • Little (Negative of much): Used with uncountable nouns. "I have little time."
  • Few (Negative of many): Used with plural countable nouns. "There are few opportunities."
• Less vs. Fewer:
  • Less: For uncountable nouns. "I have less time than you."
  • Fewer: For plural countable nouns. "Today I receive fewer emails."
• Pronominal Locutions:
  • Whoever: Quem quer que.
  • Whatever: O que quer que.
  • Whichever: Qualquer um que (from options).
  • Whenever: Sempre que.
  • However: Como quer que.
  • Wherever: Onde quer que.

Modal Verbs II

• Can / Could:
  • Can: Capacity/ability in the present, permission, informal request, real possibility.
  • Could: Formal request/permission, past ability (past of can), reasonable possibility.
• To Be Able To: Locution used to substitute Can/Could across all tenses, including future. "I will be able to speak German."
• May / Might:
  • Both indicate permission and possibility (May = reasonable probability; Might = remote probability).
  • Past Possibility: $Modal + have + Past\,Participle$. "Alan may have forgotten."
  • To Be Allowed To: Locution for permission. "I was allowed to use the facilities."
• Must:
  • Contexts: Probability (based on evidence) or Obligation (necessity).
  • Past Probability: $Must + have + Past\,Participle$. "It must have cost a lot."
  • Prohibition vs. Lack of Obligation: "Must not" (mustn’t) indicates prohibition. "Don't have to/Don't need to" indicates a lack of obligation.

Prepositions

• List of General Prepositions:
  • About: sobre, cerca de. "The class began at about $7$pm."
  • Above: acima de. "Performance was above average."
  • Across: do outro lado de. "The news spread across the country."
  • After: depois de. "He arrived after me."
  • Against: contra. "Sinner is playing against Alcaraz."
  • Along: ao longo de. "We walked along the beach."
  • Among: entre (v
    rios).
  • Around: ao redor de, por volta de.
  • Before: antes de, perante.
  • Behind: atr
    s de, atrasado.
  • Below: abaixo.
  • Beneath: abaixo de, sob.
  • Beside: ao lado de.
  • Besides: alm de.
  • Between: entre (dois).
  • Beyond: alm de.
  • By: por (agente), de (meio), perto de, at (deadline).
  • Despite: apesar de (In spite of).
  • Down: para baixo.
  • During: durante.
  • For: para (intent), por (duration/price).
  • From: de (origin).
  • Inside: dentro de.
  • Into: para dentro de.
  • Near: perto de.
  • Of: de.
  • Off: fora de, algo errado.
  • Out: fora, no funciona. "Printer is out of order."
  • Outside: do lado de fora.
  • Over: sobre, mais que, durante.
  • Since: desde.
  • Through: atravs de.
  • Until: at (limit of time).
  • To: para (direction), infinitive.
  • Toward(s): em direo a.
  • Under: sob, embaixo, menos de.
  • Up: para cima.
  • With: com.
  • Within: dentro de (time frame/distance).
  • Without: sem.
• Prepositions of Time and Place (At / On / In):
  • Time:
    • At: Specific times and religious periods. "At $7$pm," "At Christmas time."
    • On: Days of the week and specific dates (month + day). "On Saturdays," "On July $17^{th}$."
    • In: Long periods (months, years, centuries, seasons). "In July," "In $2004$."
  • Place:
    • At: Specific points and numbered addresses. "At the bus stop," "At $235$ Main Street."
    • On: Surfaces and names of streets/avenues. "On the table," "On Collins Avenue."
    • In: Enclosed spaces, cities, countries, continents. "In the kitchen," "In Barcelona," "In Ohio."

Conjunctions and Clauses of Addition

• Addition Clauses: Suggested by conjunctions like: And, as well, as well as (bem como), also, in addition to (alm de), not only… but also.
• Other Connectors:
  • Either… or: ou… ou.
  • Both… and: tanto… como.
  • If / Whether: se.
  • Unless: a no ser que.
  • Then: ento.
  • Neither… nor: nem… nem.
  • Otherwise: caso contr
    rio.

Conditionals

• Zero Conditional (Facts always true):
  • Formula: If + Simple Present + Simple Present.
  • Example: If you heat water to $100^∘C$, it boils.
• First Conditional (Probable Action):
  • Formula: If + Simple Present + Simple Future.
  • Example: If she takes the medicine, she will feel better.
• Second Conditional (Improbable Action):
  • Formula: If + Simple Past + Conditional (would).
  • Example: If I talked to her, she would forgive me.
• Third Conditional (Impossible Action/Regret):
  • Formula: If + Past Perfect + Conditional Perfect (would have + participle).
  • Example: If they had invited him, she would have come tonight.
• Mixed Conditionals: When the condition is past and the result is present.
  • Example: If I had taken that job offer, I would be living in London now.

Pronouns and Possessives

• Personal Pronouns:
  • Subject: I, You, He, She, It, We, You, They. (Used before the verb).
  • Object: Me, You, Him, Her, It, Us, You, Them. (Used after verb/preposition).
• Possessives:
  • Adjective (Always accompanies a noun): My, Your, His, Her, Its, Our, Your, Their.
  • Pronoun (Replaces the noun): Mine, Yours, His, Hers, Its, Ours, Yours, Theirs.
  • Double Possessive: "A friend of mine" (Um amigo meu).
• Self-Pronouns:
  • Reflexive: Subject is also the object. "I cut myself."
  • Emphasizing: Highlights that the subject performed the action. "The President himself drove the car."
  • Idiomatic "By": By myself/herself means "alone."
• Reciprocal Pronouns: "Each other" (two people) and "One another" (two or more).

Articles

• Indefinite (A/An):
  • A: Used before consonant sounds. Includes "U" and "E" with a "YU" sound ($a\,university, a\,European$).
  • An: Used before vowel sounds. Includes silent "H" ($an\,hour, an\,heir$).
• Definite (The):
  • Used for specific sense; omitted for generic sense.
  • Geographic Rules: Omitted before cities, states, and most countries. Used for those involving "United," "Republic," or plural names ($The\,Netherlands, The\,Maldives$).
  • Omissions: Omitted before lakes ($Lake\,Victoria$), used before mountains and rivers ($The\,Andes, The\,Amazon$).
  • Instruments and Dances: Use "the."

Adjectives and Adverbs

• Adjective Properties: Genderless, no plural form, always precedes the noun.
• Order of Adjectives: $Opinion \rightarrow Size \rightarrow Age \rightarrow Shape \rightarrow Color \rightarrow Origin \rightarrow Material$.
  • Example: A beautiful big round wooden table.
• Comparatives and Superlatives:
  • Short Adjectives: $-er$ for comparative; $the\,-est$ for superlative.
  • Long Adjectives: "More" for comparative; "The most" for superlative.
  • Irregulars: Good/Better/The Best; Bad/Worse/The Worst; Little/Less/The Least; Much-Many/More/The Most; Far/Farther-Further/The Farthest-Furthest.

Nouns

• Pluralization Exceptions:
  • CH, SH, X, S, Z: add $-es$.
  • Y (preceded by consonant): replace with $-ies$.
  • F/FE: usually replace with $-ves$ ($life\,\rightarrow\,lives$).
  • Irregulars: man/men, woman/women, child/children, tooth/teeth, foot/feet, goose/geese, mouse/mice, louse/lice, ox/oxen.
• Uncountable Nouns: Nouns that are treated as a set and cannot be counted individually. They never take "a/an" and are always singular in verb agreement.
  • Categories: Substances (sand, milk), Abstractions (love, advice), Diseases (flu, measles), Subjects (math, economics), Activities (swimming), and Food (rice, cheese).