Unit 1: Origin and Growth of Indian Political System Study Notes

Learning Objectives and Introduction to the Origin and Growth of Indian Political System

• Tryst with Destiny: Jawaharlal Nehru famously stated at the stroke of the midnight hour on August $15$, $1947$: "Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom."
• Core Objectives of study:     - Understanding the legacy of the national movement and inculcating nationalist feeling.     - Knowledge of the Government of India Act of $1935$ and the Indian Independence Act of $1947$ for constitutional development context.     - Learning the political developments from the interim government to the first general elections.     - Understanding the formation and role of the Constituent Assembly.     - Identifying the hurdles in the integration of princely states and the basis for the re-organization of states.

The Legacy and Characteristics of the Indian National Movement

• The Indian freedom struggle is characterized as the greatest mass movement in world history and was notably a non-violent revolution.
• Key Leaders: The movement was led by individuals of high moral standards including Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopalkrishna Gokhale, Lala Lajpath Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, M.K. Gandhi, Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Shivaram Rajguru, Sukhdev Thapar, Khudiram Bose, V.D. Savarkar, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Khan Abdul Gafar Khan, Sardar Vallabha Bhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, B.R. Ambedkar, and C. Rajagopalchari.
• Character of the Movement: It was original, innovative, and democratic. Its legacy includes ideals of popular sovereignty, representative government, civil liberties, a self-reliant economy, secularism, and a foreign policy opposed to fascism and imperialism.
• Challenges at Independence:     - Partition: Gandhi described independence as a day of rejoicing for freedom but mourning for partition. It involved mass exodus, communal riots, and violence.     - Socio-economic problems: Agricultural and industrial stagnation, backwardness, impoverishment, dismal health services, ignorance, and inequality.
• Immediate Tasks of Independent India:     - Territorial and administrative integration.     - Framing the constitution and building a representative democracy.     - Pushing the process of nation-building.

Evolution of Constitutional Development (1600–1919)

• British East India Company: Granted a Royal Charter in $1600$. Captured political power after the Battle of Plassey in $1757$. Ruled from $1757$ to $1858$. This era was marked by corruption and exploitation.
• Sepoy Mutiny ($1857$): Described by some as the First War of Indian Independence, it led to the transfer of power to the British Crown via the British Crown Act of $1858$.
• Indian National Congress (INC): Established in $1885$, it led various ideological groups to pressure the British for independence.
• Key Pre-1935 Acts:     - Morley-Minto Reforms ($1909$): Aimed to provide native elements participation in government and introduced separate electorates for Muslims.     - Montagu-Chelmsford Report/Act of $1919$: Introduced Dyarchy (Dual government) in British provinces and aimed at a responsible government.

The Government of India Act of 1935

• Background:     - The $1919$ reforms failed to satisfy Indian aspirations, leading to Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation movement for Swaraj.     - Simon Commission ($1927$): A statutory commission with $7$ British members and no Indians. It was boycotted with the slogan "Simon Go Back". It proposed "Dominion Status" in $1929$.     - Round Table Conferences ($1930$, $1931$, $1932$): Resulted in the "White Paper" recommendations.     - Poona Pact: Signed by Gandhi and Ambedkar; modified the demand for separate electorates for untouchables into reserved seats for depressed classes.
• Main Provisions:     - The project contained $321$ Articles and $10$ Schedules.     - Federation: Proposed an all-India Federation of British Indian provinces and Princely States.     - Three-fold Division of Power:         - Federal List: $59$ subjects (external affairs, currency, defence).         - Provincial List: $54$ subjects (police, education).         - Concurrent List: $36$ subjects (criminal law, civil procedure, marriage).         - Residuary Powers: Vested in the Governor-General.     - Dyarchy at the Centre:         - Reserved Subjects: Defence and external affairs administered by the Governor-General via appointed Councilors (not responsible to the legislature).         - Transferred Subjects: Administered on the advice of a Council of Ministers (responsible to the legislature).     - Federal Legislature: Bi-cameral.         - Council of States (Upper House): $260$ members ($156$ from British India, $104$ from Princely States).         - Federal Assembly (Lower House): $375$ members ($250$ elected by assemblies, $125$ nominated by rulers). Term was $5$ years.     - Federal Court: Established in Delhi in $1937$ with a Chief Justice and $6$ judges. Sir Maurice Gwyer was the first Chief Justice.
• Provincial Autonomy:     - Introduced in $11$ provinces (Madras, Bombay, Bengal, U.P., Punjab, Bihar, Central Provinces, Assam, N.W.F.P., Orissa, and Sind).     - Abolished the distinction between reserved and transferred subjects at the provincial level.
• Success/Failures: Dominion status was not conferred. The Federation did not materialize due to Princely State opposition. Provincial autonomy was limited by the Governor’s discretionary powers.

The Indian Independence Act of 1947

• Precedents: Cripps Mission ($1942$), Quit India Movement, and the Wavell Plan (which failed due to Jinnah's demand for a separate Pakistan).
• Cabinet Mission ($1946$): Recommended a Constituent Assembly of $389$ members, an Interim Government, and a Union of India. It ruled out Pakistan as undesirable.
• Mountbatten Plan: Proposed partition after a compromise between INC and Muslim League became impossible.
• Provisions of the Act:     - Set up two independent dominions, India and Pakistan, on August $15$, $1947$.     - Territory: India kept Bombay, Madras, U.P., Bihar, etc. Pakistan received Sindh, Baluchistan, West Punjab, East Bengal, N.W.F.P., and Sylhet.     - Boundary Commission: Headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe.     - Legal Status: The British Crown lost rights of Paramountcy; the Office of the Secretary of State was abolished.     - Sovereignty: Consituent Assemblies became sovereign and acted as legislatures until new elections.

The Interim Government of India

• Formation: Established September $2$, $1946$, derived from the $389$-member Constituent Assembly.
• Key Cabinet Members and Portfolios:     - Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru: Prime Minister.     - Shri Vallabhabhai Patel: Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister.     - Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Law.     - Maulana Abul Kalam Azad: Education.     - C.H. Bhabha: Commerce, Mines and Power.     - N.V. Gadgil: Works, Mines and Power.     - Rajkumari Amrit Kaur: Health.     - Rafi Ahmed Kidwai: Communication.     - John Mathai: Railways and Transportation.     - Shyamprasad Mukherji: Industry.     - Jagajeevan Ram: Labour.     - R.K. Shanmukham Chetty: Finance.     - Sardar Baladev Singh: Defence.     - P. Deshmukh: Food and Agriculture.     - K.C. Neogy: Relief and Rehabilitation.     - Gopal Swami Ayyangar: Portfolios not specified (Member).

First General Elections (1951–1952)

• Scope: Largest free election in world history, held from October $1951$ to February $1952$ based on Universal Adult Franchise.
• Statistical Data:     - Lok Sabha Seats: $489$.     - Electorate: $176$ million.     - Actual Voters: $105.5$ million.     - Polling Booths: $2,24,000$.     - Voter Turnout: $45\%$.     - Political Parties: Nearly $70$.     - Total Candidates: $1800$.
• Party Results:     - Indian National Congress (INC): Securing $364$ seats ($45\%$ of votes / $74.5\%$ of seats).     - Communist Party of India (CPI): $16$ seats ($3.29\%$ of votes).     - Bharatiya Jan Sangh: $3$ seats ($3.06\%$ of votes).     - Independents: $37$ seats ($16\%$ of votes).     - Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party: $9$ seats ($6\%$ of votes).
• Notable Outcomes:     - G.V. Mavalankar was the Speaker of the First Lok Sabha.     - Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was defeated in the Bombay constituency by Kajrolkar.     - Rural voting ($60\%$) exceeded town voting ($40\%$).     - The First Lok Sabha lasted from April $17$, $1952$ to April $4$, $1957$.

Integration of Princely States

• Context: $565$ Princely states were declared independent as of August $15$, $1947$, due to the lapse of British Paramountcy.
• Leaders of Integration: Sardar Patel (Minister of Indian States Department) and V.P. Menon (Secretary).
• Instrument of Accession: States acceded control over Defence, Foreign Affairs, and Communication.
• Integration Methods:     - $216$ states merged with adjoining provinces (e.g., $24$ Orissa states).     - Grouping small states into unions (e.g., Saurashtra, PEPSU) under a Rajpramukh.     - Conversion into Chief Commissioner's Provinces (Part-C states, e.g., Himachal Pradesh).
• Problematic Accessions:     - Junagadh: Nawab Mohbat Khan fled to Pakistan after a rebellion; a plebiscite confirmed the people's wish to join India.     - Hyderabad: Nizam Asad Usman Alikhan refused to join; paramilitary Razakars committed atrocities. India launched "Operation Polo" in September $1948$ to integrate the state.     - Kashmir: Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession on October $26$, $1947$. Article $370$ was created to provide a special status/separate constitution. Sir Owen Dixon was later appointed as a U.N. representative for the dispute.

Re-organization of States

• Categories Post-Constitution ($1950$):     - Part A: $10$ Governor's provinces (e.g., Andhra, Bombay, Madras).     - Part B: $8$ Princely State Unions (e.g., Mysore, Hyderabad).     - Part C: $10$ Chief Commissioner units (e.g., Coorg, Delhi).     - Part D: Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Linguistic Principle: Motilal Nehru report ($1928$) emphasized that language is closely related to culture. Post-independence commissions included the S.K. Dar Commission and the JVP Committee (Nehru, Patel, Sitaramayya).
• Potti Sri Ramulu: His death after a $58$-day fast led to the creation of Andhra state in $1953$.
• States Re-organization Committee (SRC) $1953$: Members were Justice Fazl Ali, K.M. Panikkar, and Hridayanath Kunzru.
• States Reorganization Act ($1956$):     - Abolished the Part A, B, C, D distinction.     - Abolished Rajpramukhs.     - Created $14$ states and $6$ union territories.
• Subsequent Evolutions:     - $1960$: Bombay divided into Maharashtra and Gujarat.     - $1966$: Punjab divided into Punjab and Haryana.     - States formed later include Nagaland ($1963$), Himachal Pradesh ($1971$), Manipur/Meghalaya/Tripura ($1972$), Sikkim ($1975$), and Goa/Arunachal/Mizoram ($1987$).     - $2000$: Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand formed.     - Current Status (per text): $29$ States and $7$ Union Territories (including the bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh/Telangana).