chapter 5: spirit of independence lessons 3-4

A Meeting in Philadelphia

GUIDING QUESTION What role did key individuals play in the movement toward independence?

In September 1774, fifty-five delegates gathered in Philadelphia. They had come to set up a political body that would represent Americans and challenge British control. The delegates called this body the Continental Congress.

Leaders from twelve of the thirteen colonies attended the meeting. Only Georgia did not send a representative. Massachusetts sent fiery Samuel Adams and his lawyer cousin, John Adams. New York sent John Jay, another lawyer. Virginia sent George Washington as well as Richard Henry Lee and Patrick Henry, two outspoken defenders of colonial rights. Patrick Henry wanted the colonies to unite in firm resistance to Britain. He summed up the meaning of the meeting when he addressed the delegates on its second day:

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"The distinctions between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers, and New Englanders are no more. I am not a Virginian, but an American."

-Patrick Henry, at the Continental Congress, 1774

The Delegates Vote

The delegates discussed complaints against the British. Then they voted. In a statement of grievances, the delegates called for the repeal of 13 acts of Parliament. They believed these laws violated the "laws of nature, the principles of the English constitution, and the several charters" of the colonies. The delegates also voted to boycott British trade. The colonies would not import or use any British goods, nor would they sell their goods in Great Britain.

Continental Congress delegates also decided to endorse the Suffolk Resolves, prepared by the people of Boston and other Suffolk County towns in Massachusetts. These resolutions declared the Coercive Acts to be illegal. They called on the county's residents to arm themselves against the British. After delegates endorsed the resolves, other colonies also organized militias- groups of citizen soldiers.

The Colonial Militias

American colonists had a long tradition of serving and protecting their communities in militias. Members of a militia were an important part of each town's defense. Militia members trained and had drills with the other citizen soldiers. They practiced using muskets and cannons. Each member was required to provide his own weapon-usually a musket-and ammunition.

Later, as tension between Britain and the colonies grew, towns began to gather and store military supplies.

Fighting Begins

GUIDING QUESTION Why were the battles at Lexington and Concord important?

Many colonists believed that if fighting with the British were to break out, it would happen in New England. Militias in Massachusetts held drills, made bullets, and stockpiled weapons. Some militias were known as minutemen because they boasted they would be ready to fight at a minute's notice. In the winter of 1774-1775, a British officer stationed in Boston noted in his diary:

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"The people are evidently making every preparation for resistance. They are taking every means to provide themselves with Arms."

-from Diary of Frederick Mackenzie, 1775

Great Britain Sends Troops

The British also got ready for a fight. King George told Parliament that the New England Colonies were "in a state of rebellion" and that "blows must decide" who would control America. By April 1775, several thousand British troops were in and around Boston, with more on the way. British general Thomas Gage had orders to seize the weapons from the Massachusetts militia and arrest the leaders.

Gage learned that the militia stored arms and ammunition at Concord, a town about 20 miles (32 km) northwest of Boston. He ordered 700 troops under Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith "to Concord, where you will seize and destroy all the artillery and ammunition you can find."

The British on the Move

On the night of April 18, 1775, colonial protest leader Dr. Joseph Warren walked through Boston. Watching for any unusual activity by the British, he saw troops marching out of the city.

Warren alerted Paul Revere and William Dawes, members of the Sons of Liberty. Revere and Dawes rode to Lexington, a town east of Concord, to spread the word that the British were coming. Revere galloped across the countryside, shouting his warning of the approaching troops. Hearing the news, Samuel Adams said, "What a glorious morning this is!" He was ready to fight. A British patrol later captured Dawes and Revere. Another rider named Samuel Prescott carried the warning to Concord.

Lexington and Concord

Meanwhile, the British continued their march. At dawn, the redcoats approached Lexington. There they ran into about 70 waiting minutemen.

Led by Captain John Parker, the minutemen stood on the town common with muskets in hand. Badly outnumbered, the minutemen were about to give way to the redcoats. Just then, a shot was fired -from where is still not clear. Both sides let loose an exchange of bullets. When the shooting ended, eight minutemen lay dead.

The British continued on to Concord. While some troops burned the few weapons they found, the others met a group of minutemen waiting at the North Bridge. In a short battle, the British took heavy losses. They began to make their way back to Boston.

All along the road, colonists hid behind trees and fired on the soldiers. By the time the redcoats reached Boston, at least 174 were wounded and 73 were dead.

About 60 years later, poet Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote in "The Concord Hymn" that the Americans at Lexington and Concord had fired the "shot heard 'round the world." The battle for independence had begun.

More Military Action

GUIDING QUESTION What were the beliefs of the Loyalists and Patriots?

After the battles at Lexington and Concord, armed conflict with British forces quickly spread. Benedict Arnold, a captain in the Connecticut militia, raised a force of 400 to seize Fort Ticonderoga near Lake Champlain in New York.

Ticonderoga occupied a key location. It was also rich in military supplies.

Arnold learned that Ethan Allen of nearby Vermont also planned to attack the fort. So Arnold joined forces with Allen's men —the so-called Green Mountain Boys. Together, they took the British by surprise. Fort Ticonderoga surrendered on May 10, 1775.

Later, Arnold became a traitor to the Patriot cause. He sold military information to the British. When his crime was discovered in September 1780, he fled to British-controlled New York City. There he commanded British troops and led raids against the Americans in Virginia and Connecticut.

The Battle of Bunker Hill

Following Lexington and Concord, more volunteers joined the colonial militias. Soon militia around Boston numbered about 20,000 strong.

The British remained in control of the city, with the militia camped nearby.

On June 16, 1775, militia commanded by Colonel William Prescott set up posts on Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill, across the harbor from Boston.

The next day, the redcoats assembled at Breed's Hill. Bayonets drawn, they charged. Low on ammunition, Prescott reportedly ordered, "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes." The Americans opened fire, forcing the British to retreat. Twice more the redcoats charged, receiving furious fire from above. Finally, the Americans ran out of gunpowder and had to withdraw.

The battle on Breed's Hill-which became known as the Battle of Bunker Hill —was a British victory. Yet the British suffered heavy losses of more than 1,000 dead and wounded. They were learning that defeating the Americans on the battlefield would be neither quick nor easy.

The Second Continental Congress

GUIDING QUESTION How did individuals and events impact efforts for independence?

In 1774 the Continental Congress agreed to meet again if the British did not address their complaints. In fact, as the battles at Lexington and Concord in 1775 showed, the dispute between the British and the colonies had worsened.

Distinguished Leaders

The Second Continental Congress met on May 10, 1775. The delegates included some of the greatest leaders in the colonies. Among them were John and Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, and George Washington- all delegates to the First Continental Congress. Several new delegates came as well.

Benjamin Franklin, one of the most respected men in the colonies, had been a leader in the Pennsylvania legislature. In 1765 he represented the colonies in London and helped win repeal of the Stamp Act. John Hancock of Massachusetts was a wealthy merchant. He funded many Patriot groups, including the Sons of Liberty. The delegates chose Hancock to be president of the Second Continental Congress. Thomas Jefferson, only 32, was also a delegate. He served in the Virginia legislature. Jefferson was already known as a brilliant thinker and writer.

The delegates at the Second Continental Congress had much to discuss.

Though American and British blood had been spilled, they were not ready to vote for a break from Britain. It would be another year before Jefferson would write the Declaration of Independence.

Key Actions

The Continental Congress did take steps to begin governing the colonies. It authorized the printing of money and set up a post office, with Franklin in charge. The Congress also formed committees to handle relations with Native Americans and foreign countries. Most important, it created the Continental Army. Unlike local militias, such a force could form and carry out an overall strategy for fighting the British. The Congress unanimously chose George Washington to command this army. Washington was an experienced soldier and a respected Southern planter. He left Philadelphia at once to take charge of the forces in Boston.

The delegates then offered Britain a last chance to avoid war. They sent a petition, or formal request, to George III. Called the Olive Branch Petition, it assured the king that the colonists wanted peace. It asked him to protect the colonists' rights. The king rejected the petition. Instead, he prepared for war.

He hired more than 30,000 German troops, called Hessians (HEH • shuhnz), to fight alongside British troops.

The War Heats Up

Congress learned that British troops in Canada were planning to invade New York. The Americans decided to strike first. A unit of Patriots marched north from Fort Ticonderoga and captured Montreal. However, an American attack on Quebec, led by Benedict Arnold, failed.

Washington reached the Boston area in July 1775, a few weeks after the Battle of Bunker Hill. The British held Boston, but Patriot militia ringed the city. Although the size of the colonial force grew every day, Washington realized that the men were disorganized and lacked discipline —the ability to follow strict rules and procedures. Washington began the task of turning armed civilians into soldiers.

Washington also needed weapons. He arranged to have dozens of cannons hauled 300 mile(483 km) from Fort Ticonderoga. Moving the heavy guns was a huge effort.

In March 1776, Washington believed his army was ready to fight. Under the cover of darkness, he moved soldiers and cannons into position overlooking Boston, while the redcoats slept.

The move surprised the British, who realized they were now within easy reach of Washington's big guns. British General William Howe commanded his soldiers to board ships and withdraw from Boston. On March 17, Washington led his jubilant troops into the city. They watched as the British troops sailed away to Halifax, Nova Scotia, a part of Canada.

Moving Toward Independence

Many colonists held on to hope that the colonies could remain part of Great Britain. Still, support for independence was growing. It was inspired in no small part by writer Thomas Paine. Paine arrived in the colonies from England in 1774. He soon caught the revolutionary spirit. In January 1776, he published a pamphlet called Common Sense. In bold language, Paine called for a complete break with British rule.

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"Every thing that is right or reasonable pleads for separation. The blood of the slain, the weeping voice of nature cries, 'TIS TIME TO PART."

-from Common Sense, 1776

Common Sense listed powerful reasons why Americans would be better off free from Great Britain. The pamphlet greatly influenced opinions throughout the colonies.

Declaring Independence

GUIDING QUESTION Why did the American colonies declare independence?

The Second Continental Congress was filled with spirited debate: Should the colonies declare themselves an independent nation or stay under British rule? In June 1776, Virginia's Richard Henry Lee offered a bold resolution:

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"That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States ... and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved."

The Congress debated Lee's resolution. Some delegates still thought the colonies should not form a separate nation. Others argued that war had already begun and they should be free from Great Britain. Still others feared Britain's power to crush the rebellion.

Writing the Declaration

While delegates debated, Congress chose a committee to write a declaration of independence. John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Livingston, and Roger Sherman formed the committee.

Adams asked Jefferson to write the first draft. Jefferson hesitated, but Adams persuaded him, saying:

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"Reason first-You are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second -I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third —you can write ten times better than I can."

-from The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, 1822

Jefferson agreed that he would do the writing for the great project. He drew on ideas from English philosopher John Locke to explain why the 13 colonies were proclaiming their freedom. In the 1690s Locke expressed the idea that people are born with certain natural rights to life, liberty, and property. Locke wrote that people form governments to protect those rights, and that a government interfering with those rights could rightfully be overthrown. Jefferson and other Patriots agreed with Locke.

On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress voted on Lee's resolution for independence. Twelve colonies voted for independence. New York did not vote but later announced its support.

Next, the delegates discussed Jefferson's draft of the Declaration of Independence. After making some changes, delegates approved the document on July 4, 1776. John Hancock signed the Declaration first. He remarked that he wrote his name large enough for King George to read without his glasses. Eventually 56 delegates signed the document announcing the birth of the United States.

Copies of the Declaration of Independence were printed and sent out to people in the newly declared states. George Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9. In Worcester, Massachusetts, a public reading of the Declaration of Independence led to

"repeated [cheers], firing of musketry and cannon, bonfires, and other demonstrations of joy."

The Declaration of Independence

The Declaration has four major sections. The preamble, or introduction, states that people who wish to form a new country should explain their reasons for doing so. The next two sections of the Declaration list the rights that the colonists believed they should have and their complaints against Great Britain. The final section proclaims the existence of the new nation.

John Adams expected the day Congress voted on Lee's resolution for independence to be celebrated as a national holiday. He wrote, "The Second Day of July 1776 ... ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade... and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other." Instead, July 4, the date the delegates actually adopted the Declaration of Independence, is celebrated as Independence Day.

The Declaration of Independence states what Jefferson and many

Americans thought were universal principles —that is, principles that apply to all people in all situations. It begins by describing what had long been viewed as basic English rights:

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"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable [not to be denied] Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."

- Declaration of Independence, 1776

The Declaration states that government exists to protect these rights. If government fails, "it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it and to institute new Government." The document goes on to list grievances against the king and Parliament. These include "cutting off our trade with all parts of the world" and "imposing taxes on us without our consent." Americans had

"Petitioned for Redress" of these grievances. The British had ignored or rejected these petitions.

Finally, the Declaration announces America's new status (STAY • tuhs).

Pledging "to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor," the Americans declared themselves a new nation. The struggle for independence -the American Revolution - had begun.