AP GOV
Affirmative Action: Policies designed to address past and present effects of discrimination by giving preference to historically disadvantaged groups in areas like employment and education.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990: A landmark civil rights law that prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life, including jobs, schools, transportation, and all public and private places that are open to the general public.
Civil Liberties: Fundamental rights and freedoms protected by law from infringement by the government, such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press. These are often negative rights, meaning they restrict government action.
Civil Rights: The rights of all citizens to political and social freedom and equality, protected by law. These are often positive rights, requiring government action to ensure equality (e.g., the right to vote, equal access to public facilities).
Civil Rights Act of 1964: A comprehensive federal law that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment practices and public accommodations.
Defamation (Libel/Slander): The act of harming the reputation of another by making a false statement. Libel refers to written or published defamation, while slander refers to spoken defamation.
Double Jeopardy: A Fifth Amendment protection that prevents an individual from being prosecuted a second time for the same crime after being acquitted or convicted.
Due Process Clause of the 5th/14th Amendments: These clauses guarantee that the government must act fairly and in accordance with established rules when it seeks to deprive a person of life, liberty, or property. The Fifth Amendment applies to the federal government, and the Fourteenth Amendment extends this protection to state governments.
Establishment Clause: The first of two clauses in the First Amendment concerning religion. It prohibits the government from establishing a religion or endorsing one religion over others.
Exclusionary Rule: A legal principle, based on the Fourth Amendment, that evidence collected or analyzed in violation of the defendant's constitutional rights is inadmissible for a criminal prosecution in a court of law.
Equal Protection Clause: A clause in the Fourteenth Amendment stating that no state shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. It serves as a primary tool for combating discrimination.
Free Exercise Clause: The second of two clauses in the First Amendment concerning religion. It reserves the right of American citizens to accept any religious belief and engage in religious rituals.
Penumbra Rights: Implied rights derived from other enumerated rights in the Constitution. For example, the right to privacy, though not explicitly stated, is often considered a penumbra right arising from various amendments (e.g., 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 9th).
Prior Restraint: Government prohibition of speech or publication before its expression. Under First Amendment law, prior restraints are presumptively unconstitutional and are very difficult to justify.
Selective Incorporation Doctrine: A judicial doctrine through which the Supreme Court has applied most of the protections of the Bill of Rights to the states through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Symbolic Speech: Nonverbal communication that expresses an idea or opinion, such as wearing an armband or burning a flag. It is protected under the First Amendment as a form of free speech.
Title IX: A federal law that prohibits discrimination based on sex in any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance.
Voting Rights Act of 1965: A landmark federal law that prohibits racial discrimination in voting.
Supreme Court Cases
Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Ruled that state-sponsored segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson.
Scott v. Sandford (1857): Held that Black people, whether enslaved or free, could not be American citizens and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court, and that the federal government had no power to regulate slavery in federal territories. The 13th and 14th Amendments later superseded it.
Korematsu v. U.S. (1944): Upheld the constitutionality of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, based on wartime security concerns.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): Established the legal precedent of "separate but equal," which allowed for racial segregation in public facilities, as long as the segregated facilities were purportedly equal.
Regents v. Bakke (1978): Ruled that while affirmative action was constitutional, the University of California's quota system for minority admissions was not, prohibiting the reservation of a specific number of seats for minority applicants.
Engel v. Vitale (1962): Found that mandatory prayer in public schools violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Ruled that states must provide attorneys to indigent defendants in felony cases, expanding the Sixth Amendment's right to counsel.
Gregg v. Georgia (1976): Reaffirmed the constitutionality of the death penalty, provided it is applied fairly and with appropriate due process to prevent arbitrary or discriminatory application.
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): Established a constitutional right to privacy regarding marital relations, striking down a state law that prohibited the use of contraceptives, finding a "penumbra" of privacy in the Bill of Rights.
Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Applied the exclusionary rule to the states, holding that evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment (unreasonable search and seizure) is inadmissible in state courts.
Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Established that suspects must be informed of their Fifth Amendment rights (to remain silent and to an attorney) before custodial interrogation.
Roe v. Wade (1973): Legalized abortion nationwide, recognizing a woman's constitutional right to privacy to make medical decisions affecting her body, falling within the penumbra of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Schenck v. U.S. (1919): Introduced the "clear and present danger" test for restricting free speech, ruling that speech could be curtailed if it posed a significant threat to national security, especially during wartime.