Chapter_7

III. Toddlers and Preschoolers (Ages 1–6)

A. Physical Changes

  1. Cardiovascular System:

    • Functions similarly to adults with no significant differences.

  2. Respiratory System:

    • Lung musculature is underdeveloped.

    • Inability to sustain deep or rapid breathing for long periods.

  3. Growth:

    • Weight gain begins to level off.

  4. Immune System:

    • Loss of passive immunity (maternal antibodies), increasing susceptibility to infections.

  5. Neuromuscular Growth:

    • Significant progress in motor skills and coordination.

  6. Toilet Training:

    • Typically completed around 28 months.

B. Psychosocial Changes

  1. Developmental Challenge:

    • Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt; toddlers assert independence but may experience feelings of doubt or shame if overly controlled.

  2. Language Development:

    • Basic language skills are typically mastered by 36 months.

  3. Social Interaction:

    • Begin to play games and interact with peers.

  4. Cause and Effect:

    • Understanding starts to emerge between 18 and 24 months.

  5. Gender Recognition:

    • Children observe and mimic gender roles from caregivers and other role models.

IV. School-Age Children (Ages 6–12)

A. Physical Changes

  1. Growth Rate:

    • Gain approximately 4 lb (2 kg) and 2.5 inches (6 cm) each year.

  2. Teeth Development:

    • Permanent teeth start to emerge during this stage.

  3. Brain Development:

    • Increased activity in both hemispheres, enhancing overall reasoning and cognitive functions.

B. Psychosocial Changes

  1. Reasoning Skills Development:

    • Preconventional Reasoning: Children act to avoid punishment or gain rewards.

    • Conventional Reasoning: Children seek approval from peers and society.

    • Postconventional Reasoning: Decisions are guided by personal conscience and ethical principles.

  2. Self-Concept and Self-Esteem:

    • Children begin to develop their self-concept, forming a clearer sense of identity and building confidence through achievements.

V. Adolescents (Ages 12–18)

A. Physical Changes

  1. Vital Signs:

    • Pulse: 60-100 beats/min

    • Respiratory Rate: 12-20 breaths/min

    • Systolic Blood Pressure: 90-110 mm Hg

  2. Growth Spurt:

    • 2 to 3-year growth spurt characterized by increased muscle and bone growth.

    • Girls typically complete their growth spurt by 16 years of age; boys by 18 years.

  3. Endocrine and Reproductive System Maturation:

    • Development of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., pubic/axillary hair, voice changes).

    • Menstruation starts in females.

B. Psychosocial Changes

  1. Family Conflicts:

    • Conflict may arise as adolescents seek independence from parents.

    • Issues of privacy and increased self-consciousness become prominent.

  2. Identity Struggle:

    • Adolescents often strive to establish their own identities and many are focused on their public image.

  3. Peer Pressure:

    • Peak of antisocial behavior, including smoking, drug use, and risky sexual behaviors is common during ages 14 to 16.

  4. Mental Health Risks:

    • Higher risk for depression and suicide during this developmental stage.

  5. Development of Ethics:

    • Personal ethics form based on parental, peer influences, and personal experiences.

VI. Early Adults (Ages 19–40)

A. Physical Changes

  1. Vital Signs:

    • Pulse: around 70 beats/min, variability between 60–100 beats/min

    • Respiratory Rate: 12-20 breaths/min

    • Systolic Blood Pressure: 90-120 mm Hg

  2. Peak Functionality:

    • Optimal body functioning occurs from age 19 to about 25 years.

    • Aging effects start to appear towards the end of this stage.

B. Psychosocial Changes

  1. Life Focus:

    • Centered around work, family, and stress management.

    • This period is generally stable despite challenges.

VII. Middle Adults (Ages 41–60)

A. Physical Changes

  1. Vital Changes:

    • Vital signs remain consistent with early adulthood.

  2. Health Vulnerabilities:

    • Increased susceptibility to vision and hearing loss, cardiovascular issues, cancers, diabetes, and obesity.

    • Menopause typically occurs between late 40s and early 50s.

B. Psychosocial Changes

  1. Life Goals:

    • Focus on life accomplishments and adapting as children leave home.

  2. Caregiver Role:

    • Adults may find themselves balancing caring for aging parents while also letting go of children heading to college.

VIII. Older Adults (Ages 61+)

A. Physical Changes

  1. Life Expectancy:

    • Average life expectancy stands at approximately 78 years; influenced by various factors.

  2. Cardiovascular Changes:

    • Cardiac function declines, heart rate and output decrease as vascular stiffness increases.

  3. Respiratory Changes:

    • Airway size increases, but alveoli surface area decreases; lungs lose elasticity, making breathing more labor-intensive.

  4. Digestive Changes:

    • Reduced nutritional absorption, tooth loss, and decreased saliva contribute to difficulties in digestion.

  5. Renal Function:

    • Filtration capacity declines significantly from age 20 to age 90.

  6. Nervous System Changes:

    • Brain weight may decrease by 10-20% by age 80; slower reaction times increase fall risk.

  7. Sensory Changes:

    • Pupillary reaction slows and visual ranges narrow; hearing loss is more common than vision loss.

B. Psychosocial Changes

  1. Living Arrangements:

    • Most older adults live at home, often in need of assistance from family or caregivers.

  2. Mortality Awareness:

    • Increased focus on mortality can lead to isolation and depression.