Geography notes

IMPERIALISM (1870-1914)

Overview of Imperialism

Between 1870 and 1914, coinciding with the second phase of the Industrial Revolution, a significant global phenomenon known as imperialism manifested through practices of authority and control exercised by certain peoples over others. This era saw the United States, Japan, and numerous European nations. The motivations for these imperialist actions included:

  • Economic exploitation of newly acquired territories.

  • Increasing national power and prestige.

  • Completing world exploration initiatives.

  • Controlling new territories to alleviate population pressures in the home countries.

  • Demonstrating cultural and racial superiority over other populations.

Forms of Control Over Colonial Territories

Imperialism was characterized by a variety of control mechanisms over colonial territories, including:

  • Dominions: These were territories that welcomed a sizeable population from the metropolis, providing a second homeland for colonists. In dominions, settlers experienced a level of autonomy and governance akin to that of their mother country.

  • Exploitation Colonies: In these areas, a white minority from the metropolis asserted absolute control over the indigenous populations.

  • Protectorates: In protectorates, the metropolis maintained control over foreign affairs, military, and resource extraction while respecting the local sovereign's governance.

  • Strategic Bases and Spheres of Influence: Less common forms of control included the establishment of strategic bases (e.g., Gibraltar, Cyprus) and spheres of influence, which allowed countries to exert control over particular regions without formal annexation.

  • Mandates: Post-World War I, mandates were formed to administer territory lost by the Ottoman Empire in the Near East.

Specific Examples of Imperialism

China

China presented a unique challenge to colonial powers seeking control due to its vast land and populous regions. Despite these challenges, colonial powers were unwilling to abandon the lucrative market offered by China. Therefore, they established territorial enclaves known as concessions along its coastal regions.

  • Hong Kong is the most notable example, which was under British control from 1842 until its return to China in 1997.

Africa

Africa was the continent severely affected by imperialism. Although colonial presence existed in Africa prior to the 19th century, 1830 marks the beginning of concerted European domination when France invaded Algeria under the guise of punishing piracy. This led to the establishment of a protectorate in Algeria, and similar patterns were observed with Morocco and Tunisia along with the creation of exploitation colonies throughout sub-Saharan Africa.

  • The exploitation was significantly enabled by major expeditions, facilitated exploration of Africa's interior. Noteworthy explorers include:   - David Livingstone: Led an expedition along the Zambezi River.   - Henry Monton Stanley: Discovered the source of the Congo River.   - Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza: Explored the right bank of the Congo River.

  • These expeditions allowed several nations, including Germany, Belgium, Spain, Italy, and Portugal, to stake claims in Africa. However, France and the United Kingdom were the two nations that emerged most powerfully from this colonial division.

  • By 1912, only two territories remained outside European colonialism: Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia, which was invaded by Italy in 1936) and Liberia. Liberia, founded in 1847 by free Black people and formerly enslaved individuals from the U.S., retained its independence due to its unique origins and strong ties to the United States.

Asia

Imperialism's impact in Asia was particularly profound, with the British controlling critical territories such as Hadhramaut, Burma, Malaysia, and primarily India, which was famously referred to as the "jewel in the crown" of British Empire. Additional colonial powers in Asia included:

  • France: Controlled Indochina.

  • Japan: Established colonies in Korea, Taiwan, and Manchuria.

  • Netherlands: Controlled Indonesia.

  • Portugal: Maintained presence in East Timor.

  • Spain: Had controlled the Philippine Islands since the 16th century but was forced to cede them to the United States following the Spanish-American War in 1898.

Wars Caused by Imperialism

Imperialism was a significant catalyst for conflict, exemplified by the situation in South Africa:

  • The United Kingdom seized the Dutch Cape Colony in 1806, prompting Dutch settlers (Boers) to migrate north and establish their own states (e.g., the Orange Free State).

  • The desire for annexation of these Boer states culminated in military conflict, resulting in the First Boer War in which Britain faced defeat and later the Second Boer War (1899-1902), leading to ultimate British victory and control over the South African region.

In the Americas:

  • The United States solidified its position as the dominant power, particularly against Mexico. The tension initiated over the territory of Texas, previously part of New Spain, led to Texas declaring independence in 1836 and annexing itself to the U.S. in 1845. The subsequent conflict, known as the Mexican-American War, concluded with Mexico signing the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, ceding over 2,000,000 km² to the United States.

Japan's Rise as an Imperial Power

Unique among Asian nations, Japan adopted imperialist practices without being subjugated. Following its victory over China in the First Sino-Japanese War (1895), Japan sought to further assert its military prowess against Russia. This led to the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), resulting in Japan securing the southern half of Sakhalin Island and establishing protectorates in Manchuria and Korea, which Japan annexed in 1910.