Comprehensive Study Guide to Ancient Chinese Surnames, Names, and Honorifics, and Social Etiquette
The Concepts of Xing (Surname) and Shi (Clan Name) in Ancient China
Ancient Chinese society distinguished between "Xing" (姓) and "Shi" (氏). Originally, the Xing was a designation representing a common bloodline, lineage, or ethnic group. It served as the title for an entire tribal clan. According to historical records, the primary purpose of the Xing was to distinguish lineages for marriage, clarify ancestral lines, and differentiate between different racial groups. It is theorized that the origins of surnames are tied to early totem worship. In primitive times, various tribes and clans had specific totem objects—such as ears of wheat, bears, or snakes—which functioned as tribal symbols and eventually became the collective designation for all members, known as the Xing. Because the number of original tribes was limited, the number of pure ancient surnames is quite small.
Historical documents identify over 80 ancient surnames, including Feng (风), Gui (妫), Si (姒), Zi (子), Ji (姬), Ying (嬴), Ji (己), Cao (曹), Qi (祁), Yun (妘), Jiang (姜), Dong (董), Yan (偃), Mi (芈), Wei (隗), and Yun (允). Over time, these evolved significantly. The Northern Song Dynasty's "Bàijiāxìng" (Hundreds of Surnames) recorded surnames. Modern catalogs like the "Compendium of Chinese Surnames" published in mainland China list surnames, while Taiwan's "Zhonghua Xingfu" lists approximately . A 1984 survey estimated that modern Chinese people use over surnames. Most modern surnames are actually derived from what were once ancient "Shi."
The Shi emerged as branches of the Xing. As populations grew, tribes would split into smaller sub-tribes, creating new branches. Methods for naming a Shi were varied: feudal lords might use the name of their enfeoffed state; high officials (Qing and Dafu) might use the name of their granted fief or "caiyao"; others used official titles or their place of residence. Crucially, while a Xing was permanent and unchangeable, a Shi could change. Ancient Chinese social codes emphasized the biological risks of inbreeding, with the "Zuo Zhuan" stating that if men and women share the same surname, their offspring will not flourish ("男女同姓, 其生不蕃"). Thus, the Xing was vital for regulating marriage. For example, the famous Jiang Taigong (Jiang Ziya) had the Xing of Jiang, the Shi of Lu, the given name Wang, and the courtesy name Ziya. Prior to the Spring and Autumn period, surnames belonged only to the aristocracy; commoners did not have them. By the Han Dynasty, Xing and Shi merged into a single concept available to all.
The System of Given Names (Ming) and Courtesy Names (Zi)
In ancient times, a "Ming" (名) and a "Zi" (字) were distinct entities. For instance, Confucius had the Ming of Qiu and the Zi of Zhongni. According to tradition, a father would name a child three months after birth. The Zi was given during the adulthood ritual—the Capping ceremony for men and the Hair-pinning ceremony for women. The Ming was typically used by elders to call their juniors, while the Zi was used between peers or by juniors to address their seniors to show respect. Calling someone directly by their Ming was considered impolite in social settings. This is evidenced in Wang Anshi's letter to Sima Guang, "Reply to Sima, the Advisor to the Censorate," where he refers to Sima Guang by his Zi, "Junshi," throughout the text to express esteem.
The relationship between a Ming and a Zi was usually one of semantic continuity, with the Zi acting as a supplement or reflection of the Ming. There are four primary ways these were related. First, through synonymous or similar meanings: Qu Yuan's Ming was Ping (meaning flat/level), and his Zi was "Yuan" (meaning a wide plain). Similarly, Zhuge Liang's Zi, Kongming, reflects his Ming (Liang, meaning bright). Second, through contradictory or antonymous meanings: Zeng Dian's Zi was Xi (Xi means white, while Dian suggests black/stained). Han Yu, whose name means "to surpass," took the Zi "Tuizhi," meaning "to retreat," as a sign of humility. Third, through contextual or literary association: Cao Cao's Zi was Mengde, based on a passage in Xunzi regarding "Decorum and Conduct" (De-cao). Zhao Yun's Zi was Zilong, referencing the I Ching's "clouds follow the dragon." Finally, some Zi included the character "Zi" (子) as a prefix—a respectful term for a man—such as in Sima Qian (Zi: Zichang) or Du Fu (Zi: Zimei). Additionally, the Zi often indicated birth order among brothers using the sequence Bo (伯) or Meng (孟) for the first, Zhong (仲) for the second, Shu (叔) for the third, and Ji (季) for the fourth. For example, Sun Quan was the second brother and thus had the Zi "Zhongmou."
Pseudonyms and Honorary Titles (Hào)
The "Hào" (号) is a more flexible honorary or self-chosen title used alongside the Ming and Zi. Unlike names, the Hào was not restricted by clan rules or taboos, allowing for personal expression of one's aspirations or environment. There are two types: self-chosen titles (Zìhào) and titles granted by others (Zènghào). Literati often used Zìhào to reflect their residence or interests. Tao Yuanming called himself "Wuliu Xiansheng" (Master of Five Willows) after the trees near his home. Li Bai used "Qinglian Jushi" (Householder of Green Lotus) after his home village in Sichuan. Ouyang Xiu chose "Liuyi Jushi" (Householder of Six Ones) to represent his life's companions: one thousand scrolls of books, one thousand ancient stone rubbings, one zither, one game of chess, one pot of wine, and one old man.
Zènghào (titles granted by others) could reflect public recognition. Li Bai was called "Zhexianren" (The Banished Immortal). Fan Zhongyan was known as "Longtu Laozi" or "Fan Lvshuang" because of his favorite musical piece. People were also addressed by their official rank (Du Fu as Du Gongbu), their birthplace (Wang Anshi as Wang Linchuan), or their fief (Sima Guang as Wenguogong). Posthumous titles (Shìhào) were evaluations given after death based on a person's life and virtues. For instance, Yue Fei was posthumously titled "Wumu." Private posthumous titles (Sīshì) were given by disciples or friends, such as Tao Yuanming's title "Jingjie." Finally, nicknames or monikers (Chuo-hào) were common, especially as seen in "Water Margin," where characters like Song Jiang (Jishiyu) and Lin Chong (Baozitou) had names reflecting their traits.
Honorifics, Humble Terms, and Social Address
Ancient Chinese etiquette required a careful choice of terms based on social hierarchy and intimacy. Humble terms (Qiānchēng) were used for self-reference. Examples include "Yu" (foolish), "Bi" or "Biren" (person of low status), "Shen" (unworthy), and "Pu" (servant). Emperors used specific self-referential humble terms such as "Gu" (the lonely one), "Gua" (one with little virtue), or "Bugǔ." Scholars used "Xiaosheng" or "Wanxue." When referring to one's own family, the prefix "Jia" (家) was used for living elders (e.g., Jiafu, Jiamu), while "She" (舍) was used for younger relatives (e.g., Shedi, Shemei). For children, fathers might use "Xiao-er" or "Quan-zi" (puppy son). Wives were humbly called "Neiren" or "Zhuojing" (my clumsy thorn).
Honorifics (Jìngchēng) were used for others. The prefix "Ling" (令) meant beautiful/fair and was used for another's relatives (Lingzun for father, Lingtang for mother, Ling-ai for daughter). "Zun" (尊) was another honorific prefix used in terms like Zunjia or Zunyi. "Xian" was used for peers or juniors (Xian-di). For the deceased, the prefix "Xian" (先) was a mark of respect for elders (Xianfu for late father), while "Wang" (亡) was used for late juniors or peers (Wang-er). Emperors were addressed with terms like "Bixia," "Tianzi," or "Wan-sui." The term "Bixia" literally refers to the steps of the palace throne, implying that the speaker is speaking to the attendants at the steps because they do not dare address the emperor directly.
Cultural Taboos (Bìhuì) and Naming Bans
The practice of Bìhuì involved avoiding the names of emperors, superiors, or elders in speech and writing. This was a mandatory social requirement. When encountering a restricted character, one had to replace it with a synonym or omit a stroke (quebi) when writing it. Violating this could be considered "Great Irreverence." A famous victim of this was the poet Li He. Because his father's name was Jin Su (晋肃), and the character "Jin" (晋) sounded like the "Jin" in "Jinshi" (the highest imperial exam), Li He was prohibited from taking the exam. This effectively ruined his political career. The famous scholar Han Yu wrote the essay "Hui Bian" to argue against this, pointing out the absurdity: if a father's name was "Ren" (virtue), should the son be forbidden from being a human? Ancient rulers were also referred to by their Era Names (Niánhào), Temple Names (Miàohào), or Posthumous Titles (Shìhào) to avoid leur direct names.
Terminology for Age and Relationships
Ancient China had a rich vocabulary for different life stages and social connections. Age designations included:
Infancy: "Chū-dù" (birth), "Tāng-bǐng-zhī-qī" (3 days), "Qiáng-bǎo" (under 1 year), "Zhōu-zuì" (1st birthday), and "Hái-tí" (2 to 3 years old).
Youth: "Chuí-tiáo" (3-9 years), "Yōu-xué" (10 years), "Zǒng-jiǎo" (8-14 years), and "Dòu-kòu" (girls aged 13-14).
Adulthood transitions: "Shù-fà" or "Zhì-xué" (boys aged 15), "Jí-jī" (girls aged 15, marriageable), "Ruò-guàn" (boys aged 20), and "Jié-fà" (marriage age).
Maturation: "Ér-lì" (30), "Bù-huò" (40), "Zhī-mìng" or "Bàn-bǎi" (50).
Seniority: "Huā-jiǎ" or "Ěr-shùn" (60), "Gǔ-xī" (70), "Hào-shǒu" (white head), "Mào-dié" (80-90), and "Qī-yí" (100). Longevity beyond 100 included "Huā-jiǎ-chóng-kāi" (120) and "Shuāng-xī" (140).
Categories of friendship were equally specific: "Jīn-lán-zhī-jiāo" (like siblings), "Wěn-jǐng-zhī-jiāo" (life-and-death bond), "Mò-nì-zhī-jiāo" (perfect understanding), "Wàng-nián-zhī-jiāo" (friendship between different generations), and "Bù-yī-zhī-jiāo" (friendship between commoners). There were also designations for death based on rank: "Bēng" (Emperor), "Hòng" (Princes/High Officials), "Yuán-jì" (Buddhist monks), and "Wáng-gù" (commoners). Terms like "Jiàn-bèi" or "Qì-yǎng" were specifically used to refer to the death of one's parents.