Comprehensive Study Guide: Audience Analysis, Speech Structure, and Delivery

Fundamentals of Audience Analysis

The Primacy of the Audience: Public speaking is fundamentally interdependent with the listeners. Just as a musical concert is incomplete without an audience, a speech cannot exist without listeners. At live musical events, performers do not merely play instruments; production teams curate sets, sound balance, physical comfort, temperature, refreshments, and song selections to fulfill the audience's desires. In public speaking, the audience must be the central focus during topic selection, content crafting, and delivery.
Definition of Audience Analysis: Audience analysis is the systematic process of gathering information about listeners to inform the creation and delivery of an effective speech. This data enables speakers to comprehend the needs, values, convictions, attitudes, and demographic profile of their listeners.
The Audience-Centered Approach: Being audience-centered requires shifting focus away from speaker-centric inquiries (such as "What do I want to say about this topic?") toward audience-centric considerations (such as "What do they want or need to hear about this topic?"). Neglecting this orientation risks producing content that is irrelevant, unhelpful, or unethical.

Audience seated in an auditorium listening to a presentation

The Individual Perceptual Lens: Every listener filters incoming messages through a unique perceptual lens shaped by individual background and lived experience. Even siblings raised in the exact same household under identical rules possess divergent frames of reference due to differences in age, external interactions, and developmental timing.
The Rule Against Assumptions: Speakers must never assume they inherently understand their audience, even when addressing familiar cohorts such as academic peers. Effective speech construction requires setting aside preconceived notions and actively analyzing listeners to establish authentic alignment.

John Legend singing into a microphone

Core Orienting Questions for Audience Centeredness:
- Why are they here? Determine whether attendance is mandatory (e.g., an occupational directive or required class) or voluntary. Clarify whether the presentation serves as the "main event" or if the attendees have convened for a broader, secondary purpose.
- What do they know already? Evaluate prior knowledge and direct experience. A presentation on climate change must adopt entirely different terminology and depth for middle school pupils compared to university scholars. Similarly, discussing dating applications requires distinct framing when speaking to married couples versus single individuals.
- Where are they coming from? Recognize diverse experiential backgrounds and aim content toward a general audience so that disparate frames of reference remain engaged.

Dimensions of Audience Analysis

Demographic Analysis: The collection and examination of quantifiable statistical data representing the characteristics of a population or subgroups within it.
- Real-World Precedent: The United States Census Bureau conducts demographic surveys every $10\text{ years}$ , recording household sizes, adult-to-child ratios, average annual earnings, racial and ethnic backgrounds, ages, and genders to allocate governmental funding and project infrastructural needs.
- Speech-Specific Demographics: Public speakers examine smaller-scale demographic markers to ensure cultural propriety and content alignment, including:
  - Age brackets
  - Gender identity
  - Ethnic and cultural backgrounds
  - Group and organizational memberships
  - Educational attainment levels
  - Political affiliations
  - Religious affiliations
  - Socioeconomic status
Psychological Analysis: The examination of internal psychological constructs that determine how listeners interpret reality. This focuses on attitudes, beliefs, and values:
- Attitudes: A learned predisposition reflecting an individual's likes or dislikes. Attitudes exist toward consumer brands (e.g., preferring Nike over Adidas or MAC cosmetics), policies, and subjects. They are evaluative and variable.
- Beliefs: Convictions or assumptions about the world that individuals hold to be true or false. Beliefs are typically grounded in cultural upbringing and evolve alongside expanding frames of reference. For example, incoming college students frequently believe public speaking classes should not be mandatory; effective educators analyze this belief in advance to construct first-day rationale that secures student buy-in.
- Values: Deep-seated, enduring principles or foundational standards of ideal conduct utilized to justify beliefs and attitudes. Values determine personal judgments regarding good versus bad, right versus wrong, moral versus immoral, and ethical versus unethical. They are the most stable, foundational elements of human psychology and the most resistant to modification.
- Psychological Interconnection Paradigm: A person may hold a positive or negative orientation toward higher education (attitude); believe that college represents either an unnecessary "13th grade" or a viable pathway out of financial poverty (belief); and operate from the foundational principle that all human beings possess an intrinsic right to access education (core value).
Situational Analysis: The assessment of situational and contextual variables unique to a specific speaking engagement.
- Key Situational Inquiries:
  - What is the total headcount of the audience?
  - What is the explicit purpose for addressing this group?
  - What tangible value or insight will the audience derive from the presentation?
  - What is the listeners' current level of interest in the topic?
  - What competing thoughts, pressures, or events are currently occupying their attention?
  - What is the physical layout, seating geometry, and spatial configuration of the room?
  - Is the physical environment comfortable (temperature, seating, visibility)?
  - Are there acoustic, technological, or environmental interferences that might impede message reception?

Justin Trudeau speaking on stage at the University of Waterloo

Methods for Conducting Audience Analysis

Data Collection: Gathering quantitative and qualitative metrics through formal deductive instruments, including surveys, structured questionnaires, and individual interviews. While formal data gathering is not mandated for every presentation, it provides empirical insight into listener demographics and opinions.
Inference: Deriving tentative, reasoned conclusions regarding audience characteristics through critical reasoning and known data points.
- Evidentiary Basis: Inferences must be grounded in reliable external evidence to avoid incorrect stereotypes. For example, given verified national statistics showing that $46\%$ of the United States population owns an iPhone, a speaker can infer that several individuals in a classroom own one. Definitive confirmation, however, requires direct measurement through data collection.
Direct Observation: Gathering qualitative insight by actively watching and listening to prospective audience members over days or weeks.
- Informal Field Application: Observing peer discussions before class or during breaks reveals trending interests, political opinions regarding upcoming civic elections, or personal struggles (e.g., student parents balancing employment, child care, and coursework). These observed qualitative insights allow speakers to adapt upcoming speeches directly to their peers' lived realities.

Adapting to Audience Agreement Levels

Audiences That Agree:
- Purpose of Speaking: Addressing a friendly audience where an overwhelming majority (e.g., $95\%$ in favor of hybrid vehicles) already agrees with the central premise is not redundant.
- Preventing Backsliding: Human commitment weakens over time without consistent reinforcement. This explains why adherents attend weekly worship services at churches, temples, or mosques, and why individuals in recovery attend Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meetings even after achieving a decade ( $10\text{ years}$ ) of sobriety. The objective with agreeing listeners is to reinforce core beliefs, revitalize motivation, and provide deeper validation.
Audiences That Disagree:
- Strategic Approach: Listener disagreement does not invalidate topic selection or require speaker concession. Instead, it demands robust empirical evidence, strategic organization, and capturing interest from the opening moments.
- Structural Priority: Speakers addressing oppositional audiences must front-load their presentation by positioning their strongest, most compelling evidentiary arguments first. Controversial topics often yield significant persuasive impact when treated with intellectual rigor.
Audiences That Are Neutral:
- The Persuasive Opportunity: Neutral listeners represent an optimal audience because they have not yet committed to a polarized stance or critically analyzed the issue.
- Application: When delivering an informative or persuasive presentation on topics like TikTok and digital addiction, neutral listeners lack entrenched views. Compelling arguments can persuade them to either create content or delete the application entirely.
Audiences That Are Apathetic:
- The Motivational Hurdle: Apathetic listeners present the most difficult challenge because they display disinterest and indifference. The primary objective is to forge explicit personal relevance.
- Pedagogical Case Example: College students aged $18\text{ to }22\text{ years}$ typically disregard speeches regarding the United States Social Security infrastructure because their retirement lies approximately $50\text{ years}$ in the future. To overcome apathy, the speaker must show that payroll tax deductions are actively being withdrawn from their wages right now to finance an underfunded system. Furthermore, speakers must demonstrate that system insolvency could force these young adults to shoulder direct financial and logistical care for aging parents and relatives.

Structuring Speech Introductions

Temporal Boundaries: An introduction must occupy only $10\%$ to $15\%$ of the total speech duration.
- In a $5\text{-minute}$ presentation ( $300\text{ seconds}$ ), the introduction must conclude within $45\text{ seconds}$ .
- In a $10\text{-minute}$ presentation ( $600\text{ seconds}$ ), the introduction must not exceed $1.5\text{ minutes}$ ( $90\text{ seconds}$ ).
Cognitive Function of Introductions: Audiences decide whether to engage or mentally disconnect during the opening seconds. Just as a lackluster opening scene causes viewers to turn off a television broadcast, a weak introduction leads listeners to tune out the remainder of the speech.

Interlocking teeth of a red and blue zipper

Essential Elements of an Introduction

Attention Getter: The opening device designed to hook the audience immediately into the presentation. Speakers must avoid gimmicks and never assume listeners will pay attention simply because a speaker has taken the floor.
- Approved Attention-Getting Strategies:
  - A narrative or detailed factual or hypothetical instance
  - A suspenseful cliffhanger story
  - Relevant illustrative examples
  - Contextually appropriate humor or jokes
  - Direct quotations or paraphrases from recognized authorities
  - A startling statistic or verified fact
  - A direct reference to the specific occasion
  - A selection of folklore, such as a fable, proverb, rhyme, or poem
  - A brief physical demonstration of a technique, procedure, or skill
- Demonstration Example (NASA Artemis Program):
  - Script: "I’d like you all to shout out the names of famous astronauts. The names of some of these people are names that every schoolchild knows — as well as their quotes. Can you finish this line: 'One small step for a man…'? What about, 'Houston, we have a…'? These men, and the words they said, are famous because they were involved in a program that brought humans to the moon. They made history. But what names will we remember after we go back to the moon?"
Thesis Statement (Central Idea): A concise, explicit statement that informs the audience of the overarching message they are expected to retain upon completion of the speech.
- Empirical Research on Organization: Baker (1965) demonstrated that speakers perceived as disorganised suffer immediate reductions in audience-perceived credibility compared to speakers presenting well-structured material.
Credibility and Rapport (Ethos): Grounded in Aristotle's classical concept of ethos, credibility exists entirely as a receiver-based perception. Even an exceptionally knowledgeable speaker fails if the audience does not perceive competence and integrity.
- McCroskey and Teven Tripartite Model (1999): Extensive empirical scholarship identifies three constituent elements of speaker credibility:
  - Competence: The speaker's perceived knowledge, formal training, and expertise on the subject.
  - Trustworthiness: The speaker's perceived honesty, integrity, and character.
  - Caring / Goodwill: The perception that the speaker holds the audience's best interests at heart.
- Societal Ethos Dynamics: Public figures like Oprah Winfrey or President Barack Obama possess widespread baseline credibility derived from societal standing, communication skill, and demonstrable ethos. However, domain matters: audiences readily accept culinary advice from Martha Stewart over political leaders, whereas political guidance requires corresponding governmental experience.

Oprah Winfrey delivering an address on stage with a handheld microphone

Relating to the Audience (WIIFM - What's In It For Me): Speakers must establish explicit relevance by clarifying how the message directly impacts the audience's lives.
- Bridging Topic to Audience: Listeners rarely bridge relevance gaps on their own. For example, while professional automotive mechanics readily listen to strategies for reducing vehicle repair overhead, motivating them to listen to speeches on residential interior design or space exploration requires explicitly framing those topics around stress reduction, occupational therapy, or innovative mechanical materials.
Preview of Main Points: The final structural component of the introduction, functioning as an intellectual "GPS" for the speech.
- Structural Execution: Outlines the specific roadmap of the body, which conventionally includes two to five main points. A clear preview establishes professional competence and enhances listener information processing.
Optional Introductory Additions:
- Contextual historical background
- Definitions of complex, technical, or unfamiliar terminology
- Explicit introductory references to informational handouts that will be integrated into the presentation body

Structuring Speech Conclusions

Temporal Parameters: The conclusion must occupy no more than $5\%$ to $10\%$ of total speaking time, requiring a concise and powerful exit.
The Highway Off-Ramp Metaphor: An effective conclusion mirrors an automobile exiting an interstate highway via an off-ramp: the vehicle signals, reduces speed, clarifies directional choice (turning or going straight), and proceeds safely to its final destination. A speaker must never stop speaking abruptly or finish with a passive "that's it" or standalone "thank you," which leaves audiences disoriented.

A yellow diamond-shaped road sign stating END along an ocean coastline

Core Elements of a Conclusion

Review of Thesis and Main Points: A clear summary that reminds the audience of the overarching premise and reviews the core assertions discussed in the body.
Reason to Remember: A memorable, lasting thought that reinforces speech impact.
- Informative Speeches: An essential takeaway omitted from the body (e.g., reminding listeners to wash their hands thoroughly before handling peppers in a culinary speech on California salsa, or directing voters to municipal websites to locate local polling stations).
- Persuasive Speeches (Call to Action): Direct instructions identifying immediate, measurable steps listeners should take, such as placing a phone call to a designated hotline ( $818\text{-}555\text{-}1234$ ) or mailing an advocacy letter to a congressional representative.
Tie-Back to the Attention Getter: Providing structural closure by returning full-circle to the introductory device.
- Narrative Resolution: If the speech opened with an anecdote regarding an individual named Maria, a family navigating euthanasia decisions (e.g., Jorge and his family), or a parent completing graduate school, the tie-back provides updates on those individuals, demonstrating lasting meaning.

Foundations and Methods of Speech Delivery

The Delivery Paradox: Public speakers frequently experience severe anxiety regarding delivery, even though it occupies the shortest window of the entire speechmaking process ( $5\text{ to }10\text{ minutes}$ ), compared to the days and weeks spent researching, structuring, and practicing.
The Sasha and Andres Comparative Paradigm:
- Sasha: Spends weeks compiling credible evidence, building an outline, and practicing conversational presentation. During her actual delivery, she experiences nervousness and stumbles over several oral citations. Result: The audience perceives her as credible, competent, and informative, attributing slight vocal hitches to normal nerves.
- Andres: Spends negligible time preparing, relying instead on extroversion, comfort in front of crowds, and an ability to "wing it." His presentation is entertaining and smooth. Result: The audience cannot recall any substantive facts or takeaways.
- Principle: A well-prepared speech delivered with minor flaws remains a significant, credible speech; a poorly prepared speech delivered flawlessly remains an insignificant presentation.

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivering a speech to a massive assembly at the Lincoln Memorial

The Four Methods of Delivery:
- 1. Manuscript Speaking:
  - Definition: Delivering a speech by reading a fully written, word-for-word text verbatim.
  - Appropriate Contexts: High-stakes political addresses (e.g., presidential State of the Union speeches), official legal declarations, formal media broadcasts, and competitive oral interpretation.
  - Disadvantages: Stifles vocal naturalism, resulting in a robotic cadence; restricts eye contact; prevents visual monitoring of audience feedback; and limits nonverbal adaptability.
- 2. Memorized Speaking:
  - Definition: Committing the entire word-for-word text of a presentation to memory without written speaking aids.
  - Disadvantages: High risk of cognitive freezing; memory lapses leave speakers unable to resume without restarting; often leads to monotone vocal quality; and nonverbal behaviors (gestures, pauses, vocal inflection) frequently appear mechanical or artificial.
- 3. Impromptu Speaking:
  - Definition: Delivering a speech with little to no formal advance preparation.
  - Appropriate Contexts: The most common everyday delivery style, utilized during spontaneous classroom introductions, workplace status updates, or explaining unexpected personal delays.
- 4. Extemporaneous Speaking:
  - Definition: Delivering a thoroughly researched, prepared, organized, and rehearsed presentation from brief, structured notes or a keyword outline.
  - Core Advantages: Facilitates natural conversational style, enables steady eye contact, projects authenticity, supports nonverbal adaptability, and establishes speaker credibility.
  - Demands: Requires extensive advance preparation across both verbal content and nonverbal mechanics; cannot be successfully assembled the evening prior to delivery.

Environmental and Situational Delivery Contexts

Delivering to a Virtual Audience: Presenting via remote video conferencing systems (e.g., Zoom, virtual job interviews) requires strict adherence to technical and physical standards (Abbajay, 2020):
- Lighting: Direct illumination toward the front of the face; close window blinds located behind the speaker to avoid backlighting silhouette distortion; use supplemental lighting when natural light is deficient.
- Background: Eliminate visual clutter and personal distractions; use professional background blurring or static digital backdrops if necessary.
- Technical Mastery: Conduct dry runs using the exact computer hardware, operating platform, and network connection intended for the presentation.
- Camera Alignment and Eye Contact: Elevate webcams to eye level; look directly into the camera lens rather than at on-screen participant tiles. Deactivate self-view to eliminate self-conscious distraction. Avoid low camera angles (which induce double chins and create downcast gazes) and high angles (which cause shifting eye contact).
- Framing and Distance: Maintain a medium close-up shot capturing the head, shoulders, and waist line. Avoid being positioned too far away or sitting so close that the screen displays an isolated "dismembered head."
- Posture: Stand while presenting virtually to elevate energy, expand diaphragmatic breathing, and maintain professional delivery.
- Acoustic Verification: Run sound checks with a remote collaborator. Poor audio leads listeners to tune out faster than sub-optimal video quality; utilize external microphones or headsets when internal laptop microphones prove inadequate.
- Bandwidth Stability: Connect the computer directly to the internet modem via an Ethernet cable to avoid wireless signal drops.
- Authentic Engagement: Project natural enthusiasm and positive nonverbal energy; engaged audiences retain significantly more material.

Online virtual classroom displayed on a laptop monitor

Delivering to a Live Audience (Physical Spaces):
- Spatial Awareness: Adjust projection to room acoustics and total square footage; establish clear lines of sight so all seating sections view the speaker; integrate purposeful physical movement to maintain engagement across wide rooms.

Interior view of an expansive auditorium and stage

Furniture and Equipment Mechanics:
- Lecterns and Podiums: Provide a stable surface for holding speaking notes and free the hands for purposeful gesturing. Speakers must avoid clinging tightly to the edges (the "death grip") or slouching against the stand as a physical crutch.

A speaker presenting behind a lectern

*   *Microphones:* Acoustic projection devices require pre-speech testing. Improper distance causes sound distortion, feedback, or dropped volume. Directional microphones require speaking directly into the pickup element without excessive head turning.

Verbal, Vocal, and Nonverbal Elements of Delivery

Vocal Variety: The coordinated modulation of multiple vocal mechanics to maintain auditory interest, highlight key concepts, and reinforce emotional resonance.
Verbal and Vocal Elements:
- Pronunciation: The conventional, standard phonetic sound patterns utilized to produce a word. Speakers must look up unfamiliar terms in advance and rehearse phonetic pronunciation.
- Enunciation: The clarity and precision with which discrete spoken sounds and syllables are uttered.
- Articulation: The physical operation of the tongue, lips, teeth, soft palate, and airflow to form sounds (e.g., articulating "tomato" versus "tomahto").
- Volume: The relative loudness or softness of vocal sound, adjusted for room acoustics and used strategically to emphasize critical points.
- Pitch: The musical frequency scale (highness or lowness) of vocal tone. Speaking without pitch variation produces a monotone delivery.
- Rate: The speaking speed (words uttered per minute). Anxiety often accelerates speaking rate; speakers must consciously control pace so audiences can absorb complex ideas.
- Flow of Delivery: The consistency and smoothness of speech cadence, avoiding jarring start-and-stop patterns.
- Pause: Intentional moments of silence that focus listener attention, create dramatic anticipation, and provide cognitive space to formulate subsequent thoughts.
- Vocalized Pauses (Fillers): Distracting filler sounds (such as "um," "like," "ya know," or "uh") used in place of meaningful vocabulary or silent pauses. Speakers should replace these filler vocalizations with silent breaths.
- Energy and Enthusiasm: Dynamic vocal inflection and tonal shifts that convey genuine passion, keeping listeners invested.
Nonverbal Mechanics:
- Eye Contact: The single most impactful nonverbal element in public speaking. Looking directly at listeners establishes rapport, projects credibility, and invites audience connection.
- Gestures: Natural, coordinated arm and hand movements that illustrate concepts or reinforce points. Speakers must avoid rigid stillness, distracting fidgeting, or repetitive hand waving.
- Facial Expressions: Dynamic movements of the eyes, brow, and mouth that mirror the emotional tone of the material. Smiling should be used where contextually appropriate.
- Physical Appearance: Attire establishes an immediate professional impression and should focus attention on the speaker's face and message rather than on eccentric or overly casual clothing.
  - Informal Professional: Khaki slacks paired with a collared polo or pressed shirt.
  - Formal Professional: Tailored dress trousers paired with a pressed button-down shirt, necktie, blazer, or formal business suit.

Commencement speaker in academic regalia gesturing from a podium

Speech Preparation, Rehearsal, and Execution Strategies

The True Purpose of Rehearsal: The adage "practice makes perfect" should be replaced with "practice makes better." The goal is not word-for-word memorization, but becoming comfortable with the material, managing speech anxiety, and refining physical mechanics.
Simulating the Speaking Situation:
- Physical Rehearsal Rules: Rehearsing silently in one's head or whispering notes while seated does not prepare a speaker for a live presentation.
- Vocalizing Aloud: Rehearsing out loud reveals awkward sentence phrasing, grammatical stumbling blocks, and terms that read well in written outlines but sound unnatural when spoken.
- Spatial Rehearsal: Practice standing up, projecting volume, checking visual pacing, and maintaining eye contact in an environment that closely mirrors the real presentation room.
Securing Targeted Peer Feedback:
- Rehearsing before peers, family members, or colleagues requires asking for honest, constructive critiques rather than polite compliments.
- The Diagnostic Feedback Checklist:
  - Was direct eye contact maintained across the room?
  - Was volume adequate and comfortably heard throughout?
  - Did the voice sound dynamic and engaging, or was it monotone?
  - Were any words mispronounced or poorly articulated?
  - Was posture upright, balanced, and confident?
  - Were physical gestures purposeful, or were there distracting mannerisms?
Video Recording Self-Critique: Recording practice sessions allows speakers to evaluate their own performance as an audience member. Video analysis uncovers unconscious mannerisms, excessive vocalized fillers, and posture habits.

Prateek Kalakuntla speaking on stage in a suit with a presentation clicker

Techniques for Live Execution:
- Mastery of Material: Know the sequence of concepts so deeply that mental energy remains available for audience connection rather than remembering what words come next.
- Speaking from Keyword Outlines: Rely solely on abbreviated delivery outlines consisting of keywords. Extensive sentence outlines cause speakers to read rather than speak conversationally.
- Establishing Individual Visual Bonds: Fix eye contact on an individual listener for $5\text{ to }10\text{ seconds}$ —the time required to complete a single sentence or complete thought—before transitioning to another person. In large auditoriums with hundreds of attendees, select one or two individuals within each seating zone to create the impression of engaging the entire room.
- Monitoring Visual Feedback: Continuously observe audience nonverbal cues, including affirmative head nodding, furrowed brows, tearful reactions, or blank expressions. If someone appears puzzled, pause and rephrase the concept immediately to ensure clarity.

Discussion and Critical Reflection Questions

Audience Analysis Reflection Questions:
- Informal Personal Analysis: In what ways do individuals routinely conduct subconscious audience analysis during daily conversations with parents, friends, or social media networks, and what communicative adjustments are used to ensure clarity?
- Influence of Perceptual Lenses: How do an individual's personal attitudes, cultural beliefs, and core values influence initial perceptions and evaluations of newly encountered individuals?
- Methodological Selection: Which specific analytical methods (data collection, inference, or direct observation) prove most practical in a college speech classroom, and how can a speaker assess their effectiveness?
- Audience Orientation Impact: How does speaking before agreeing, disagreeing, neutral, or apathetic audiences fundamentally alter speech research, argument structure, and delivery style?
Introductions and Conclusions Reflection Questions:
- Media Consumption Hooks: What narrative elements, visual dynamics, or thematic hooks capture personal interest during the opening minutes of a film, television broadcast, or interpersonal discussion?
- Introductory Strategy Optimization: Which specific attention-getting device is best suited to capture interest among academic or professional cohorts without turning into an unhelpful gimmick?
- The Utility of Cliffhangers: How can a cliffhanger narrative structure be applied to informative or persuasive presentations to sustain attention across main points?
- Ending Demeanor and Impact: How does a speaker's final demeanor, vocal tone, and posture influence the lasting impression left on the audience, and how does this align with structural conclusion elements?
Speech Delivery Reflection Questions:
- Extemporaneous Utility: Why is extemporaneous delivery considered the most practical speaking format for academic lectures, professional presentations, and leadership positions compared to manuscript or memorized speaking?
- Virtual Presentation Adaptations: What specific changes in room lighting, camera positioning, framing distance, audio equipment, and posture are required when adapting a live presentation to a virtual video conference?
- Delivery Element Growth: Based on individual evaluations of vocal variety (pitch, rate, volume, pauses) and nonverbal behavior (gestures, eye contact, facial expressions), which specific areas require deliberate practice to improve?
- Rehearsal Protocols: What structured rehearsal protocol—including out-loud verbalization, peer critique, and video recording—will be used to prepare for upcoming presentations, and how will diagnostic feedback be integrated?