boatwright mediterranean empire r12

Public funerals became more elaborate over time, especially through the middle of the third century.
- Gladiatorial combat was incorporated into funeral proceedings, showcasing former Roman elites.
- Historical Note: The earliest recorded gladiator games occurred during Decimus Junius Brutus' funeral in 264 B.C.
- By the end of the third century, prominent families increasingly staged funerals for relatives without public office.
- The practice included women bringing ancestral images into their husbands' houses, enhancing family stature.

The conflicts with Carthage, known as Punic Wars, notably shaped middle to late third-century Roman history.
- Carthage was a major power in the Mediterranean, particularly in North Africa (modern Tunisia), which it controlled.
- The city operated with a system that exploited local populations and held area independence.
Carthage controlled Spain and had influential connections to Greek cities in Sicily.
Early Roman treaties with Carthage were established around 500 B.C. but were complex and often challenged.

Carthaginian unrest followed due to unpaid mercenaries, leading to revolts in North Africa.
Following a chaotic spread of violence, Roman intervention ensued, leading to further conflicts in Sardinia, officially tied to Roman claims of province rights.
Roman administrative changes included the creation of permanent commands, paving the way for future governance outside Italy.

Initiated largely over territorial ambitions in Spain after the First Punic War.
- Hamilcar Barca began military invasions into Spain; leadership transferred to his sons Hasdrubal and later Hannibal Barca.

Saguntum (south of the Ebro River) was attacked by Hannibal, which triggered the Roman response.
War was declared after diplomatic negotiations failed.

Hannibal's famous crossing of the Alps into Italy surprised Romans, leading to significant victories such as the Battle of Trebia and the disaster at Cannae (216 B.C.).
- Roman losses at Cannae: possibly as many as 80,000 soldiers.
Roman Response: Fabius Maximus (Dictator) employed a strategy of attrition and avoidance of direct confrontation, earning him the nickname "Cunctator" (the Delayer).
- Eventually, Roman command shifted to more offensive tactics, notably the campaign undertaken by Scipio Africanus.

After the Second Punic War, Rome experienced an increase in permanent outposts (provinces) outside Italy.
- Administrative challenges arose, including the need for more commanders than could be elected annually.
- Increased use of prorogations allowed extended commands beyond standard terms.

Transition to coinage began during the latter part of the Punic Wars, addressing the increased need for funds for military operations.
- The introduction of silver denarii in 211 B.C. established new currency norms.
- Greater reliance on local resources and tribute systems developed for provinces.

Post-securement of power in Spain, Roman economic exploitation intensified, establishing significant mining operations.
Ongoing conflicts occurred against Iberian tribes, notably the Lusitanians, leading to extended campaigns throughout the late second century.

Following the conclusion of the Second Punic War, Roman military endeavors expanded into Gaul, Greece, and Asia Minor as they sought to secure alliances and influence.
The Third Macedonian War (171-168 B.C.) marked the end of Macedonian kingship, furthering Roman control over Hellenistic territories.
Roman administrative practices increasingly included managing political tensions, trade issues, and military conflicts, with wide-ranging impacts on local populations and cultures across the Mediterranean.