AS

Class 7 W 09/24/25: The Dominate to the Fall of Rome (Augustus to the Fall)

Our historical look at ancient Rome covers 500 years, focusing on key emperors and common themes of the principate and empire.

After Augustus: Emperors and the Praetorian Guard

After Augustus, who initiated a hereditary line of succession, the quality and origin of emperors varied. The Praetorian Guard, the elite military branch protecting the emperor, gained significant power in selecting and removing emperors.

Tiberius (Second Emperor)

  • Ruled ~23 years, stepson of Augustus.

  • Abolished the Assembly, solidifying the imperial system.

  • Capable general who strengthened northern frontiers.

  • Reluctant leader who heavily relied on the Praetorian Guard commander, increasing their political weight.

  • Held treason trials against senators.

  • Transferred voting for magistrates to the Senate; people officially lost democratic rights.

  • Built a lavish palace on Palatine Hill, setting a trend.

  • Retired to Capri, eventually died.

Caligula (Third Emperor)

  • Nephew of Tiberius, son of Germanicus; nickname means "Little boots."

  • Ruled four years: first two effective, latter two marked by severe illness and chaos.

  • Displayed extreme instability (e.g., made his horse a senator).

  • Assassinated by the Praetorian Guard in 41 CE.

  • His rule underscored the Praetorian Guard's decisive power in succession, further diminishing the Senate.

Claudius (Fourth Emperor)

  • Appointed by the Praetorian Guard, who believed he would be a puppet due to his physical deformities and stutter.

  • Proved to be a surprisingly effective and intelligent ruler.

  • Brought southern Britain and eastern kingdoms under Roman control.

  • Developed an imperial civil service for efficient bureaucracy, lessening the Senate's power.

  • Addressed bankruptcy from Caligula's spending.

  • Ensured reliable grain supply and revenue collection.

  • Constructed aqueducts and developed the port city of Ostia, investing in public infrastructure.

  • Conducted a census, showing nearly 6 million Roman citizens.

  • Allegedly poisoned by his ambitious wife, Agrippina, to secure her son's ascension.

Nero (Fifth Emperor)

  • Agrippina's son, last of the Julio-Claudian emperors; considered a tyrant.

  • Came to power at 16, initially influenced by his mother, military tutor Burrus, and philosopher Seneca.

  • Killed his mother, stepbrother, two wives, Burrus, and Seneca, removing all checks on his power.

  • Reign marked by exorbitant spending and lavish parties.

  • Blamed for the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE; accused of playing the fiddle (anachronistic) while Rome burned.

  • Blamed Christians for the fire, leading to persecution.

  • Took public land in the city's heart to build the extravagant Domus Aurea (Golden House), causing public outrage.

  • Forced to commit suicide by the Praetorian Guard.

  • His memory was erased through damnatio memoriae, a public act of condemning and removing a person from history (e.g., tearing down monuments, removing names).

The Year of the Four Emperors

  • Following Nero's death and the end of the Julio-Claudian line, a brief civil war ensued (Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian).

  • All four were military leaders, signifying that control of the military was paramount for ruling Rome.

  • Demonstrated that lineage was no longer the sole determinant of imperial succession; high-ranking military officials chosen by predecessors or the army would rule.

  • Opened up the emperorship to a more diverse pool of powerful men from across the empire.

Vespasian

  • Emerged victorious from the Year of the Four Emperors, popular among the military.

  • Successfully crushed the rebellion in Judea (Jerusalem/Israel/Palestine).

  • Built the Colosseum on the site of Nero's Domus Aurea, symbolizing the return of public land for public use and reinforcing values of his reign ("bread and circuses").

  • Ruled for 10 years.

Titus and Domitian (Flavian Emperors)

  • Titus, Vespasian's son, was a capable military commander (captured Jerusalem; Arch of Titus built in his honor).

  • Highly popular but ruled for only two-three years, dying from sickness.

  • The eruption of Mount Vesuvius and destruction of Pompeii occurred during his reign.

  • Domitian, Titus's younger brother, succeeded him.

  • His reign was another "reign of terror," marked by killing senators.

  • Assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, leaving no heir.

Architectural Themes

Throughout this period, emperors consistently used building projects and architecture (arches, altars, columns, amphitheaters, palaces) to reinforce their rule and an idea of Rome. A constant tension existed between using infrastructure for public needs versus private gain.

Adoptive Military Dynasty

After the Flavians, a new system emerged where emperors adopted their top military commanders as legal heirs.

Trajan (98-117 CE)

  • Born into a non-patrician family from Spain, highlighting the idea that "anyone can be Roman."

  • Adopted by Emperor Nerva, marking the start of the adoptive military dynasty.

  • Undertook massive public works programs (Trajan's Column, Forum, Market) to alleviate congestion and give back to the public.

  • Created the Alimentia, a system of low-interest loans for farmers, with interest supporting orphans and poor children.

  • Under his rule, the Roman Empire reached its largest territorial extent.

  • Considered one of the greatest Roman emperors for strengthening Rome's infrastructure and people.

Hadrian

  • Adopted by Trajan.

  • Strengthened the empire's defenses by literally building a wall across Britain (Hadrian's Wall) to divide England from unconquered Scotland.

  • Put down the second Jewish revolt, leading to the Jewish diaspora and the renaming of Judea to Syria Palestinia.

Marcus Aurelius

  • The "philosopher-emperor," a Stoic who wrote Meditations.

  • Spent much of his rule campaigning on Rome's challenged borders.

  • His reign is often considered the end of the Pax Romana (Roman peace) due to increasing border crises.

  • Succeeded by his son, Commodus, whose erratic rule (e.g., fighting as a gladiator) marked a decline.

The Third-Century Crisis and Septimus Severus

  • Septimus Severus, the first African emperor, began the Severian dynasty (50 years of instability).

  • Period marked by: plague (killing a third of the population), succession problems, constant assassinations (Praetorian Guard selecting emperors), economic recession (trade decline, crumbling infrastructure), and continuous frontier wars.

  • This Third-Century Crisis led many to believe Rome's fall was inevitable.

Diocletian (late 3rd Century CE)

  • Restored order and ended violence but at the cost of personal liberties, ruling as an absolute monarch.

  • Cut out the Senate and established a more effective, efficient bureaucracy.

  • Divided the empire into two administrative realms: East and West (285 CE), the first step towards two separate empires.

  • Instituted the Tetrarchy (rule of four), with an Augustus and a second-in-command for each half.

  • Promoted traditional Roman religions, leading to the last period of persecution for Christians.

Constantine

  • Continued Diocletian's administrative reforms.

  • Relied increasingly on "barbarian" immigrants for the army, making military service a route for social mobility.

  • Centered the empire in the East, moving the capital to Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople (modern Istanbul).

  • Stabilized the economy by basing it on gold coinage (gold standard).

  • Famous for legitimizing Christianity: after seeing the "Chi-Rho" symbol with the message "in this sign, you will conquer" before the Battle of Milvian Bridge, he issued the Edict of Milan, making Christianity legal and providing religious toleration.

  • Converted to Christianity on his deathbed, establishing a trend for subsequent emperors and profoundly changing Roman culture.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire

  • Diocletian and Constantine's division, while intended to strengthen, ultimately deepened the split.

  • The Western Roman Empire officially ended in 476 CE when the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic barbarian Odoacer.

  • This ushered in a "dark age" in the West.

  • The Eastern (Byzantine) Empire continued until 1453 when it was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.

Reasons for the Fall of Western Rome (Four Main Categories)

  1. Economic Problems:

    • Growing gap between rich and poor; impoverished workers tied to the land (colonial system, precursor to feudalism).

    • Decline in manufacturing and trade; most products imported.

    • Tremendous inflation.

    • Civil wars drained money and men.

    • More extensive bureaucracy increased costs.

  2. Military Reasons:

    • Armies became loyal to emperors, not the state, often making and unmaking rulers.

    • Heavy reliance on "barbarian" (non-Roman) troops who lacked citizenship and upward mobility, leading to disloyalty.

    • Constant border attacks and invasions, shrinking borders, and chaotic defense systems.

  3. Political Reasons:

    • Decline in loyalty to the state; loyalty shifted to individual emperors.

    • Citizens lost democratic rights, reducing political buy-in.

    • East-West split created divergent policies and priorities.

    • Lack of orderly succession; constant political violence destabilized the empire.

  4. Social Reasons:

    • Population decline due to hunger, war, and plagues (e.g., Third-Century Crisis).

    • Religious divisions, particularly between loyalty to the Pope/Church and the state/Emperor.

    • Migrations of various tribes.

    • Over-reliance on slave labor, hindering manufacturing and displacing the working class, leading to a disgruntled homeless population.

These interconnected factors led to the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire. This historical framework will inform our study of other units in the class.