Ch4 Lectures notes cuz they're too long :/

### Chapter 4: Political Transformations, 1450–1750 – Teacher Lecture Notes

#### Age of Exploration (15th–18th Centuries)

- Definition: Informal term for European sea-faring nations' global exploration; led by Portugal and Spain; marked European discovery of Americas, rise of colonialism as national policy.

- Key Drivers: Economic incentives (e.g., spice trade); technological advances (magnetic compass from China/Arab traders by 11th–13th centuries; "dry" compass in Europe by 1180; caravel ship for windward sailing mid-15th century); Ephemerides for latitude calculation.

- Pre-Exploration Context: 12th-century trade obstacles east of Gibraltar due to lack of incentive, not ship design; Spanish economic growth post-Reconquista (e.g., Siege of Lisbon 1147); Italian states (Venice, Genoa, Pisa) dominated eastern Mediterranean trade; Norman Conquest enabled North Sea trade; Hanseatic League boosted northern Europe; Flanders textiles drew Genoese/Venetian merchants.

- Impacts: Rise of global trade, European colonial empires; Columbian Exchange (transfer of plants, animals, food, humans/slaves, diseases, culture between Old/New Worlds); mapping/worldview shift; spread of diseases decimating indigenous populations (e.g., American Indians); enslavement, exploitation, military conquest, economic dominance, spread of European civilization/technology.

- Key Milestones: Portuguese discoveries (Madeira/Azores 1419/1427; West Africa coast post-1434; India sea route 1498 by Vasco da Gama); Spanish voyages (Columbus 1492–1504; Magellan circumnavigation 1519–1522); expeditions continued into 19th century (polar regions 20th century).

#### Portuguese Exploration

- Early Efforts: King Dinis (1297) focused on exports; 1317 agreement vs. Muslim pirates; 14th-century plague depopulation shifted population to coastal fishing/trading.

- Afonso IV (1325–1357): Encouraged maritime commerce, first explorations.

- Canary Islands: Claimed by Portuguese (known to Genoese); disputed by Castile 1344, sparking sea rivalry.

- Trade Monopoly Strategy: Used military/intimidation to control ports/tax trade (Mediterranean-style).

- Ceuta Conquest (1415): Aimed at African coast navigation; Prince Henry the Navigator (present) saw Trans-Saharan trade profits (slaves/gold via Moors).

- Henry's Goals: Bypass Muslim territories; direct West Africa trade; find Christian allies (e.g., Prester John); reach Indies/spices by sea.

- Sponsorship: Backed voyages; reached Madeira (1419), Azores (1427) via João Gonçalves Zarco.

- Challenges: Myths of monsters/edge-of-world beyond Cape Non; Cape Bojador passed 1434 by Gil Eanes.

- Advances: Caravel (mid-15th century) for open Atlantic; systematic south exploration (1°/year); Senegal/Cape Verde 1445; Sierra Leone vicinity 1446 by Álvaro Fernandes.

- Fall of Constantinople (1453): Ottoman blow to Christendom/east trade.

- Papal Bulls: Romanus Pontifex (1455)/Dum Diversas (1452) granted Portugal lands/seas beyond Cape Bojador, trade/conquest vs. Muslims/pagans; initiated mare clausum (closed sea) policy.

- World Map (1459): Commissioned by Afonso V from Genoese experts for India seaway.

#### Spanish Exploration

- Early Focus: Castile rule over Canary Islands (1402); distracted by internal politics/Islamic invasions.

- Unification: Post-Castile-Aragon crowns union (late 15th century); committed to new trade routes.

- Crown of Aragon: Maritime power in Mediterranean (e.g., Sicily, Malta, Naples, Sardinia, Greece).

- Granada Conquest (1492): Ended Moorish tribute of African goods; funded Columbus to bypass Portuguese African monopoly, reach Indies westward.

- Columbus Rejections: Twice by Portugal's John II (1485/1488).

- 1492 Voyage: Departed Palos de la Frontera (Aug 3); ships: Santa María (carrack), Pinta/Niña (caravels); restocked Canaries; 5-week Atlantic crossing (Sargasso Sea); sighted land Oct 12 (San Salvador, thought East Indies); explored Cuba (Oct 28)/Hispaniola north coast (Dec 5); natives permitted men left behind.

#### Conquest of the Aztecs (Hernán Cortés, 1519–1521)

- Prelude: 1517 Yucatán expedition by Hernández de Córdoba (attacked by Mayans); 1518 Velázquez commissioned Cortés but revoked due to grudge.

- Cortés Mutiny (Feb 1519): Sailed anyway with 11 ships, 500 men, 13 horses, cannons; landed Yucatán (Mayan territory), claimed for Spain.

- Tabasco Victory: Won battle; gained Marina (Doña Marina/Malinche) as mistress/interpreter (Nahuatl/Maya speaker); learned of Aztec Empire wealth.

- Veracruz (July 1519): Took over; direct orders to Charles I.

- March to Tenochtitlan: Alliances with tribes; refused by Montezuma II.

- Cholula (Oct 1519): Massacred nobility (fear/treachery example); partially burned city.

- Tenochtitlan Arrival (Nov 8): Peaceful reception by Montezuma; gifts enticed plundering.

- Cortés Claims: Aztecs saw him as Quetzalcoatl emissary (contested by historians).

- Hostage/Ransom: Took Montezuma captive; demanded tribute.

- Narváez Expedition (April 1520): Velázquez's 1,100 men opposed Cortés; Cortés defeated/convinced them to join (left 200 in city).

- Temple Massacre: Triggered rebellion; Montezuma killed (stoned?); Spanish fled (Noche Triste); lost 870 men, treasure.

- Otumba/Tlaxcala: Narrow escape; alliances/reinforcements.

- Siege (1521): Besieged Tenochtitlan; captured Cuauhtémoc (Aug); claimed for Spain, renamed Mexico City.

#### Conquest of the Inca (Francisco Pizarro, 1530–1535)

- Prelude: 1522 Pascual de Andagoya explored west South America; heard of gold-rich "Pirú" (El Dorado); ill, returned to Panama.

- Pizarro Partnership (1524): With Hernando de Luque (finances), Diego de Almagro (supplies); "Empresa del Levante".

- First Expedition (1524): 80 men, 40 horses; failure (weather/hunger/skirmishes); Almagro lost eye; places: Puerto deseado/del hambre/quemado.

- Second (1526): 160 men; separated at San Juan River; captured Tumbes raft (textiles/gold/silver/emeralds); reached Atacames (Inca rule, no landing).

- Third Prep: Governor rejected; Pizarro's "line in sand" at Isla de Gallo; 13 stayed ("Famous Thirteen"); to Gorgona (7 months); Tumbes (1528) warmly received; saw llamas ("little camels"); natives called Spanish "Children of the Sun".

- Spain (1528): Interview with Charles I; Capitulación de Toledo authorized conquest.

- Recruits: Brothers Hernando/Juan/Gonzalo Pizarro, Francisco de Orellana (later Amazon), cousin Pedro.

- Final Expedition (Dec 1530): 180 men, 3 ships; landed Ecuador; Tumbes destroyed; founded San Miguel de Piura.

- Incan Civil War: Atahualpa vs. Huáscar; Atahualpa rested north.

- Cajamarca (1532): <200 Spanish vs. 80,000; Pizarro attacked/won; captive Atahualpa (ransom room: 1 gold/2 silver rooms).

- Execution (1533): Convicted of fratricide/plot; invaded Cuzco with indigenous troops.

- Pizarro Quote: Cuzco "greatest/finest... remarkable even in Spain".

- Capitals: Jauja provisional (too mountainous); Lima founded Jan 18, 1535.

#### Portuguese Empire

- Origins: Post-Reconquista (1418–19); explored Africa/Atlantic archipelagos for spice route.

- Key Voyages: Bartolomeu Dias (Cape of Good Hope 1488); Vasco da Gama (India 1498); Pedro Álvares Cabral (Brazil 1500, accidental/secret).

- Expansion: East Asia coasts/islands; forts/factories; by 1571, outposts Lisbon–Nagasaki (Africa, Middle East, India, South Asia).

- Economic Impact: 1/5 of per-capita income (1500–1800).

- Iberian Union (1580–1640): Philip II of Spain as Philip I of Portugal; separate administrations; attacks by Dutch/England/France.

- Decline: Overstretched; unable to defend; Brazil most valuable (1663–1825); independence 1822.

- Third Era (post-1820s): Reduced to African forts/plantations (Scramble for Africa late 19th), Portuguese Timor, India/China enclaves (Macau).

#### Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

- Division: Newly discovered lands outside Europe; meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde; east to Portugal, west to Castile (Spain).

- Signed: Spain July 2, Portugal Sept 5.

- Zaragoza (1529): Antimeridian division.

- Compliance: Portugal/Spain respected despite ignorance; other Europeans (Protestants) ignored; Indigenous nations unacknowledged.

- Legacy: Basis for Discovery Doctrine; modern land tension (e.g., 2005 Sherrill v. Oneida Nation).

#### Spanish Empire in the Americas

- Formation: Post-Columbus Caribbean; 16th century conquest of Aztec/Inca; retained loyal indigenous elites/Christian converts as intermediaries.

- Governance: Council of the Indies oversaw; viceroyalties in Mexico/Peru (dense populations/mineral wealth).

- Pacific: Magellan-Elcano circumnavigation foundation; Philippines colonization.

- Bourbon Reforms (late 18th): Restructured governance.

- Economy: Closed system under Habsburgs failed; foreign merchants (Genoa/France/England/Germany/Netherlands) dominated; Peruvian/Mexican silver flowed to Europe; crown colluded with guilds to circumvent.

- Defense: Retained most territories; Dutch/English/French took small Caribbean islands/outposts for contraband.

- 17th Century: Silver diversion to consumer goods/defense costs dwindled benefits; costs climbed.

- Bourbon Efforts: Expanded intra-empire trade; taxed colonists, tightened control vs. foreigners; gained revenue, lost empire.

- Losses: 19th century independence waves; by 1900, lost Caribbean/Pacific; only African possessions left.

#### Encomienda System

- Definition: Spanish labor reward to conquerors; labor from conquered non-Christians; theoretical benefits (Catholicism) to laborers.

- Origins: Post-Reconquista in Iberia; scaled up in Americas/Philippines.

- Mechanics: Crown granted to individuals; monopoly on indigenous groups' labor (perpetual to descendants/encomenderos); vassals of monarch.

- Evolution: Devolved to "communal" slavery; community leaders mobilized tribute/labor; encomenderos ensured Christianity/Spanish language, protection vs. threats, rebellion suppression, infrastructure.

- Tributes: Metals, maize, wheat, pork, agricultural products.

- Establishment: Fray Nicolás de Ovando formalized.

- Abuses: Hard labor, extreme punishment/death for resistance.

- Regulations: Isabella I forbade native slavery ("free vassals"); Laws of the Indies (1512+) regulated settler-native interactions.

- Mexico Variant: Ruled via hierarchies; natives stayed in settlements/families (less displacement/breakup).

#### Spanish Racial Caste System (Casta)

- Definition: "Lineage" in Spanish/Portuguese; 20th-century historians' term for mixed-race identifiers in New Spain from Spanish (españoles), Amerindian (Indios), African (Negros) unions.

- Basic Categories: Mestizo (Spaniard-Indigenous); Mulato (Spaniard-African).

- Other Terms: 18th-century casta paintings plethora for Indigenous-African mixes; not widely official/unofficial.

#### Columbian Exchange

- Definition: 15th–16th century transfer of plants, animals, culture, humans, technology, diseases, ideas between Americas, Old World, West Africa; post-Columbus 1492; tied to colonization/trade.

- Byproducts: Invasive species/diseases.

- Agricultural Changes: Altered global populations; maize/potatoes/tomatoes key to Europe (18th century)/Asia.

- Immediate Effects: Cultural exchanges; free/enslaved people transfer; population increases via crops/livestock.

- Diseases: Precipitous indigenous declines in Americas.

#### Mercantilism

- Definition: Economic policy maximizing exports/minimizing imports; promotes monarchy/aristocracy/imperialism/colonialism/tariffs/subsidies for positive trade balance/monetary reserves.

- Aims: Reduce current account deficit/surplus; government regulation for state power vs. rivals.

- Features: High tariffs on manufactured goods; viewed world trade as fixed (gain via rivals' loss).

- Historical Context: Dominant in Europe/Africa (16th–19th centuries, protoindustrialization); economic warfare tool; led to wars (e.g., Anglo-Dutch/Franco-Dutch).

- Colonial Tie: Colonies traded only with metropole.

#### Colonialism

- Definition: Control by one people/power over others/areas via colonies for economic dominance; imposes religion/language/economics/culture.

- Mechanics: Foreign administrators pursue interests, exploit people/resources.

- Distinct from Imperialism: Associated with 15th-century European period; mercantilism policies restricted colony-metropole trade.

- Shift: Mid-19th British free trade (few restrictions/tariffs).

- Extent: Europeans controlled 35% globe by 1800, 84% by 1914.

- Religion: Christian missionaries in all European colonies.

#### French Colonial Empire

- Overview: Overseas colonies/protectorates/mandates from 16th century.

- First Empire (to 1814): North America/Caribbean/India (17th century); lost most in Seven Years' War.

- Cessions: North America to Britain/Spain; Spain retroceded Louisiana (New France) 1800; sold to U.S. 1803.

- Second Empire: Began with Algiers conquest 1830.

#### English Colonial Empire

- Overview: Pre-1707 Union territories; foundation for British Empire/naval/mercantile power (surpassed Dutch/Portuguese/Spanish).

- Early Settlements: Ireland; North America/Bermuda/West Indies; East Indies "factories" (e.g., Bantam, Surat); Fort St. George (1639, Indian coast).

- 1661 Dowry: Charles II marriage to Catherine of Braganza: Tangier/Bombay (Portuguese).

- North America: Newfoundland/Virginia first; 17th century U.S. colonies; 1664 took New Netherland/Sweden (New York/New Jersey/Delaware/Pennsylvania parts).

#### New Amsterdam

- Overview: 17th-century Dutch settlement at Manhattan southern tip; seat of New Netherland government.

- Origins: Trading factory around Fort Amsterdam (defended fur trade on Hudson River).

- Status: 1624 provincial extension of Dutch Republic; 1625 capital.

- Fate: English takeover 1664; renamed New York City (Duke of York).

#### Joint Stock Companies

- Definition: Businesses with tradable shares; shareholders own proportionally; transferable without affecting company.

- Early English: Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands (1553, 250 shareholders).

- Notable: East India Company (1600 royal charter by Elizabeth I; 15-year East Indies monopoly).

- Dutch: 1602 East India Company shares tradable on Amsterdam Stock Exchange; first intercontinental corporation with locked capital/limited liability.

- Americas: London/Plymouth Companies first implementations.

#### Corporations

- Definition: State-authorized group/company as single legal entity ("born out of statute"); recognized in law.

- Early: By charter (monarch/parliament/legislature).

- Types: By stock issuance/profit-making; aggregate (multiple owners) or sole (single person/office).

#### Atlantic System (Transatlantic Slave Trade)

- Overview: 16th–19th century transportation of enslaved Africans to Americas via triangular trade/Middle Passage.

- Sources: Central/West Africa; sold by West Africans/half-European "merchant princes"; few direct raids (European life expectancy <1 year pre-quinine).

- Dependencies: South Atlantic/Caribbean economies (sugarcane/commodities).

- European Rivalry: 17th–18th centuries for overseas empires.

- Portuguese Start: 1526 first Brazil voyage; others followed.

- Conditions: Slaves as cargo (quick/cheap transport); sold for plantations/mines/construction/domestic work.

- Legal Shift: Early English Africans as indentured; mid-17th century racial caste (slaves/property; children of slave mothers enslaved).

- Major Nations (by volume): Portuguese, British, Spanish, French, Dutch, Danish.

- Outposts: African coast factors expedited shipping; slaves imprisoned in factories.

- Estimates: 12–12.8 million shipped (400 years); higher purchased; 1.2–2.4 million died voyage; millions in raids/wars/transport/seasoning camps.

- End: 19th century bans; illegal smuggling; 21st century apologies.

#### Russian Empire (1721–1917)

- Overview: Eurasia/North America; succeeded Tsardom post-Treaty of Nystad (Great Northern War); third-largest empire (surpassed by British/Mongol); declined rivals (Swedish/Polish-Lithuanian/Persia/Ottoman/Qing).

- Rule: Boyars (nobles) under tsar (later emperor); agricultural economy/serfs (tied to land/feudal; freed 1861).

- Expansion: Ivan III (1462–1505) tripled territory, ended Golden Horde, renovated Kremlin, new codex, "tsar" style, double-headed eagle/Moscow as Third Rome (43-year reign).

- 19th Century: Arctic–Black Sea, Baltic–Alaska/California; industrialization via foreign investment (railways/factories); dissident rebellions/assassinations; secret police/Siberia exile.

- Key Rulers:

- Peter I (1682–1725): Wars vs. Ottomans; Great Northern War (1699–1721) vs. Sweden (alliance Saxony/Poland/Denmark); acquired Baltic provinces; built St. Petersburg (new capital, Western design); absolutist state (Senate, provinces/districts, tax tripled, no local self-gov); Table of Ranks (noble service); church reform (Holy Synod, state tool).

- Catherine the Great (1762–1796): Golden age; expansion via conquest/colonization/diplomacy; Western modernization.

- Alexander I (1801–1825): Defeated Napoleon; Holy Alliance.

- Alexander II (1855–1881): Reforms (1861 serf emancipation); Orthodox protection in Ottoman Empire; led to WWI entry (1914 Allies vs. Central Powers).

- Crimean War (1853–1856): Defeat vs. Ottomans; reforms/Central Asia expansion.

- Decline: Absolute monarchy (Orthodoxy/Autocracy/Nationality) to 1905 semi-constitutional; WWI poor performance; Feb Revolution (1917 abdication Nicholas II); Oct Revolution/Bolsheviks/Civil War; executed family 1918; Soviet Union 1922.

#### Ivan III (Ivan the Great, 1462–1505)

- Achievements: Tripled territory (war/seizure from relatives); ended Tatar dominance; Kremlin renovation; new legal codex; Russian state foundations.

- 1480 Victory: Over Great Horde; Russian independence restoration (240 years post-Kiev fall to Mongols).

- Innovations: First "tsar" style; marriage Sofia Paleologue (double-headed eagle, Moscow Third Rome).

- Reign: 43 years (second-longest Russian).

#### Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible, 1533–1584)

- Overview: Grand Prince Moscow (1533–1547); first tsar All Rus' (1547); born post-independence; son Vasili III; appointed age 3.

- Chosen Council: Reformers crowned him tsar (16); established Tsardom (Moscow predominant).

- Transformation: Medieval state to empire; immense human/economic cost.

- Conquests: Kazan/Astrakhan khanates (youth).

- Later: Rid Chosen Council; Livonian War (ravaged Russia, lost Livonia/Ingria, autocratic control); Oprichnina purge nobility; Massacre of Novgorod; Moscow burning by Tatars.

- Personality: Intelligent/devout but paranoid/rage/mental instability (worsened with age).

#### Oprichnina (1565–1572)

- Definition: Ivan IV policy; mass repression boyars (executions/confiscations).

- Context: Livonian War (1558–1583) vs. Poland/Lithuania/Sweden; raids/invasions/famines/blockade/costs; Andrey Kurbsky defection (1564).

- Abdication Threat (Dec 1564): Left Moscow; letters accused elite embezzlement/treason/clergy protection; announced abdication.

- Return Conditions: Prosecute treason outside limits; execute/confiscate without interference; 100,000 rubles levy.

- Structure: Separate territory (ex-Novgorod Republic north, financial centers like Staraia Russa); Ivan exclusive power; Boyar Council ruled zemshchina ("land").

- Institutions: Initially zemshchina-reliant; later independent oprichnina.

- Resettlement: Mass; zemshchina nobles to oprichnina land seized/forced to zemshchina; undermined princely power.

- Persecutions: Princely clans (e.g., Suzdal'); 1566 extended to 8 districts (570 oprichniks/12,000 nobles; rest expelled mid-winter).

- Novgorod Massacre (1569–1570): Month-long terror; executions all classes.

- Targets: Ecclesiastical/merchant holdings (Livonian drain).

#### Qing Dynasty (1636–1912)

- Overview: Last imperial China; multiethnic; territorial base modern China; fourth-largest empire.

- Founding: Manchu Aisin Gioro (Manchuria); Nurhaci (late 16th, Ming vassal) organized Banners (military-social: Manchu/Han/Mongol); Later Jin (1616); Hong Taiji drove Ming out, Qing (1636).

- Conquest: Li Zicheng rebels took Beijing (1644); Wu Sangui opened Shanhai Pass to Dorgon; south resistance/Three Feudatories Revolt delayed to 1683 (Kangxi).

- Peak: Ruled Mainland China/Hainan/Taiwan/Mongolia/Outer Manchuria/Northwest.

- Governance: Manchu customs/Tibetan Buddhism patrons; "Bogd khaan" for Mongols; Confucian bureaucracy/imperial exams (Han recruits parallel Manchu); tributary system superiority (Korea/Vietnam); annexed Tibet/Mongolia.

- High Point: Late 18th century; decline: foreign challenges/internal revolts/population growth/economic disruption/corruption/elite mindset.

- Population/Taxes: 400 million; fixed low taxes/revenues → fiscal crisis.

- Opium Wars: European (Britain) occupation/free trade/extraterritoriality/treaty ports.

- Rebellions: Taiping (1850–1864)/Dungan (1862–1877); 20 million deaths (famine/disease/war).

- Self-Strengthening Movement: Modernize military/economy; lost First Sino-Japanese War (1895, Korea/Taiwan).

- Boxers (1900): Anti-foreign/imperial; Cixi sided; defeated by 8 powers; Boxer Protocol; reforms (elections/legal code/exam abolition).

- End: 1911 Revolution; Yuan Shikai negotiated Puyi abdication (Feb 1912).

#### Kangxi Emperor (1661–1722)

- Overview: Third Qing; second over China proper; 61-year reign (longest Chinese emperor; de facto power to grandson Qianlong).

- Ascension: Age 7; regents/grandmother Xiaozhuang 6 years.

- Achievements: Suppressed Three Feudatories/Tungning (Taiwan)/Mongol rebels; blocked Russia (Amur River, retained Outer Manchuria/Northwest).

- Legacy: Stability/wealth post-war/chaos; "Prosperous Era of Kangxi/Qianlong" ("High Qing").

#### Queue Order (17th Century)

- Definition: Qing (Manchu) laws forcing hairstyle: long braid top, shaved front.

- Resistance: Han Chinese traditionalists; "lose hair or lose head"; "keep [Han] hair, lose head".

#### Ottoman Empire (14th–Early 20th Centuries)

- Overview: Southeastern Europe/Western Asia/North Africa; founded late 13th Söğüt by Osman I; transcontinental post-1354 Balkans/1453 Constantinople (Mehmed the Conqueror, ended Byzantium).

- Zenith: 16th Suleiman the Magnificent (peak power/prosperity/government/social/economic).

- 17th Century: 32 provinces/vassals; some absorbed/autonomous.

- Capital: Constantinople (Istanbul); Mediterranean interactions East-West 6 centuries.

- Decline Myth: Not post-Suleiman; flexible economy/society/military to 18th; peace 1740–1768 lagged vs. Habsburg/Russia.

- Defeats: Late 18th/early 19th; Tanzimat reforms/modernization; 19th more powerful/organized despite Balkan losses/new states.

- Dhimmi System: Christians limited freedoms (no weapons/horseback; houses not overlooking Muslims); conversions for full status; most practiced religions unrestricted.

- Slavery: Integral; domestic servants (rare agricultural); Islamic law: not movable property, basic rights/protection; female slaves sold to 1908.

#### Devshirme

- Definition: Ottoman forced recruitment Balkan Christian children (8–20) for soldiers/bureaucrats; first records 1438 (earlier start).

- Purpose: Loyal faction to Sultan; counterbalanced Turkish nobility.

- Products: Grand viziers (1400s–1600s, second power); provincial governors/military commanders/divans.

- Process: Taken to Istanbul; trained (science/warfare/administration); converted to Islam; merit-based rise; most talented for highest positions.

- Criticism/Resentment: Forcible from parents; locals resented (some families volunteered for careers, e.g., Albanians/Bosnians; used positions for family).

- Exceptions: Muslims smuggled in.

- Decline: Soldiers preferred own sons; 1594 Muslims allowed; ended 1648.

#### Safavid Dynasty (1501–1736)

- Overview: Significant Iranian; origin Sufi order Ardabil (Azerbaijan); Kurdish origin, intermarried Turkoman/Georgian/Circassian/Pontic Greek.

- Establishment: Control Greater Iran; reasserted Iranian identity; first native dynasty post-Sasanian national state "Iran".

- Legacy: Economic East-West stronghold; efficient state/bureaucracy ("checks/balances"); architectural innovations/fine arts patronage.

#### Ottoman-Safavid War (1623–1639)

- Overview: Last conflicts over Mesopotamia; initial Persian recapture Baghdad/Iraq (lost 90 years); stalemate (Persians couldn't advance; Ottomans distracted by Europe/internal).

- Outcome: Ottomans recovered Baghdad (heavy losses); Treaty of Zuhab Ottoman victory; restored 1555 borders (Safavids kept Dagestan/eastern Georgia/Armenia/Azerbaijan; Ottomans western Georgia/Armenia/Samtskhe east/Mesopotamia).

- Later: Brief Iranian retakes (Nader Shah 1736–1747, Karim Khan Zand 1751–1779); Ottoman until post-WWI.

#### Mughal Empire (1526–1857)

- Overview: Early modern South Asia; stretched Indus/Afghanistan/Kashmir to Assam/Bangladesh/Deccan.

- Founding: 1526 Babur (Uzbek chieftain, Safavid/Ottoman aid) defeated Delhi Sultan/kingdoms; imperial structure 1600 Akbar.

- Duration: To 1720 (post-last major emperor max extent); reduced East India Company; dissolved British Raj post-1857 Rebellion.

- Structure: Military sustained; balanced cultures/peoples via administrative practices/diverse elites; efficient/centralized/standardized rule.

- Economy: Agricultural taxes (Akbar, >1/2 peasant output; zamindar collectors); silver currency; peasants/artisans to markets; 17th peace/economic expansion; European Indian Ocean demand boosted wealth.

- Collapse (1707–1720): Lost revenues for emirs/entourages; emperor authority loss (officers local deals); army bogged vs. Marathas; throne feuds.

#### Akbar the Great (1556–1605)

- Overview: Third Mughal; enlarged to most subcontinent; power/influence via military/political/cultural/economic dominance.

- Unification: Centralized administration; conciliatory marriage/diplomacy to rulers.

- Religious/Cultural Policies: Support non-Muslims (abolished jizya tax; high posts); eschewed tribal/Islamic identity; loyalty via Indo-Persian culture to emperor.

- Achievements: Empire tripled size/wealth; powerful military; political/social reforms; Sanskrit translations/native festivals; stable via subject cooperation/goodwill; multicultural foundations.

#### Zamindars

- Definition: Autonomous/semi-autonomous state rulers under Mughal/ British suzerainty; "land owner" (Persian); hereditary; enormous tracts/peasant control/tax collection (imperial/military).

- Mughal Role: Nobility/ruling class; Akbar granted military units/ancestral domains as fiefs.

- British: Consolidated zamindari system; rewarded supportive as princes; reduced pre-colonial princely/chieftaincy holdings (demoted nobility).

#### Maratha Confederacy (1674–1818)

- Overview: Dominated large Indian subcontinent portion; Shivaji coronation Chhatrapati (self-rule Native Hindu/Indian).

- Rise: Marathi warrior group western subcontinent; mobility consolidated via Mughal–Maratha Wars.

- Role: Credited ending Mughal rule most subcontinent.

- End: Pre-eminent until Second/Third Anglo-Maratha Wars (1805–1818); East India Company control.

#### Songhai Dynasty (1464–1591)

- Overview: From Gao; incorporated Mali portions post-Arab caliphate dissolution (Mali decline from lost trade/advice).

- Peak: Askia the Great (1493–1528); largest sub-Saharan empire; borders/power max.

- Islam: Enforced on populace (elite coerced); mosques/Quranic schools consolidated power (obedience to rulers).

- End: Poor administration/civil war.

#### Asante Empire (1670–1957)

- Overview: West Africa (modern Ghana); Osei Tutu (c. 1695–1717) established kingdom; Golden Stool unifying symbol.

- Expansion: Massive territorial; army reorganization/disciplined royal/paramilitary to effective force.

- European Contact: 15th century Gulf of Guinea; trade gold/ivory/slaves/goods with Portuguese; rose kingdoms like Asante.

#### Kingdom of the Kongo

- Location: West central Africa (northern Angola, western DRC, Republic of Congo); core provinces under Manikongo (Mwene Kongo, "lord/ruler").

- Conversion: Ruler to Roman Catholicism 1491 post-Portuguese contact.

- Economy: 16th–19th centuries slave source for Portuguese/Europeans; pre-existing slavery/markets; Afonso I letters show internal purchase/sale/war captives to merchants.

#### Ottoman Timar

- Definition: 14th–16th century land grants (<20,000 akçes annual tax revenue) to sipahis (cavalry)/military (Janissaries/kuls) for service (no pay).

- Holder: Timariot; compensation via revenues.

- Women: Rare; restricted to imperial family/high elite.

- Decline: End 16th; obsolete vs. gun tech (cheaper than horse); wars vs. Habsburgs/Iranians needed cash/professional army.

- Shift: 17th early: revenues to treasury for service exemption; post-death not reassigned (imperial domain); turned Tax Farms for cash.

#### Expulsion of Jews from Spain/Portugal (1490s)

- Context: Alhambra Decree (1492); eliminate converso influence/reversion to Judaism.

- Pre-1492: 1391 persecution/pogroms → half Spain's Jews converted.

- Outcomes: Remaining converted/expelled; 200,000+ converted; 40,000–100,000 expelled; unknown returns.

- Migration: Mass to Italy/Greece/Mediterranean; surnames appear there.

#### The Fronde (1648–1653)

- Overview: French civil wars amid Franco-Spanish War (1635); Louis XIV vs. princes/nobility/parlements/people.

- Trigger: Seven fiscal edicts (tax increases); parlements questioned constitutionality/check powers.

- Armed Bands: Hardened in German wars; autonomous troops under aristocrats terrorized France.

- Louis XIV Impact: Reorganized forces under strict hierarchy (king made/unmade leaders); impressed by experience.

- Legacy: Nobility's final vs. king (humiliated); strengthened royal authority; weakened economy; absolute monarchy emergence.

#### Catalan Revolt (Reapers’ War, 1640–1659)

- Overview: Affected Principality of Catalonia; roots in royal army (mercenaries) discomfort during Franco-Spanish War.

- Philip IV Policies: Evenly distribute Spanish Empire burden; Union of Arms hostilities/protests (violated constitutions).

- Catalan Resistance: Strong; Courts 1626/1632 unfinished vs. economic/military measures.

- Outcomes: Contributed Spanish Empire decline/fragmentation; example local/noble vs. monarchial power.

- Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659): Ceded Roussillon/northern Cerdanya to France; split northern Catalan from Aragon; borders to Pyrenees.

#### Ana Nzinga (1624–1663)

- Overview: Queen Ndongo/Matamba (northern Angola); ruling family birth; military/political training child; ambassador defused Portuguese crises.

- Rule: Assumed post-father/brother deaths; 37 years amid slave trade/Portuguese encroachment (Southwest Africa control).

- Achievements: Fought independence/stature vs. Portuguese.

#### King Philip’s War (Metacom’s War, 1675–1678)

- Overview: New England indigenous vs. colonists/allies; named Metacom (Wampanoag chief, adopted Philip from father Massasoit-Mayflower alliance).

- Context: Massasoit alliance; Metacom chief 1662; forsook post-violations; 1671 peace demanded gun surrender; 1675 three Wampanoags hanged (murder).

- Escalation: Native raids homesteads/villages (MA/RI/CT/ME 6 months); colonial militia retaliation.

- Colonial Army: Largest yet (1,000 militia/150 Native allies); burned villages; Great Swamp Fight (Narragansetts).

- Native Pushback: Coalition burned towns (e.g., Providence March 1676); borders back MA Bay/Plymouth/RI.

- End: Militia overwhelmed; Wampanoags/Narragansetts nearly destroyed; Treaty of Casco Bay (April 1678, northern reaches).