unit 3 psych
Mod 12:
Zygote
Fertilized egg
Genes
Biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes
Embryo
A developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the end of the eighth week
Fetus
A developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
Teratogens
Substances that cross the placental barrier and prevent the fetus from developing normally
FAS fetal alcohol syndrome
Physical and cognitive abnormalities that appear in children whose mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol during pregnancy
Rooting reflex
A baby’s tendency when touched on the cheek to open the mouth and search for the nipple
Temperament
A person’s characteristic emotional excitability
Maturation
Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior
Developmental psychology
A subfield of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
Cognition
All mental processes associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering
Schemas
Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information
Assimilation
Interpreting new experience in terms of existing schemas
Accommodation
Adapting current schemas to incorporate new information
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development (4 Stages)
Sensorimotor stage
In piaget’s theory,
The stage (birth - 2 years old) during which infants learn about the world through their sensory impressions and motor experiences
Preoperational stage
In a piaget’s theory
The stage (2-6/7 years) during which a child learns to use language but cannot yet think logically
Concrete operational stage
In piaget’s theory
The stage of cognitive development (ages 6/7-11 years) during which children gain the mental skills that let them think logically about concrete events
Formal operational stage
In piaget’s theory
The stage of cognitive development (age 12 and above) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts and form strategies about things they may not have experienced
Conservation
The principle (which piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass volume and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Egocentrism
In piaget’s theory
The inability of the preoperational child to take another person's point of view or to understand that symbols can represent other objects
Object permanence
The awareness that things continue to exist even when u cannot see or hear them
Theories on Attachment
Stranger anxiety
The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning about 8 months of age
Attachment
The emotional tie with another person shown by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress when separated
Critical period
The optimal period shortly after birth when an organisms exposure to certain experiences procure proper development
Imprinting
The process of which certain animals form attachments during a critical period early in life
Parenting Styles (4 main types)
Authoritarian parenting
A style of parenting marked by imposing rules and expecting obedience
Permissive parenting
A style of parenting marked by submitting to children's desires making few demands and using little punishment
Authoritative parenting
A style of parenting marked by ,making demands on the child being responsive, setting and enforcing rules, and discussing the reasons behind the rules
Neglectful Parenting
Parents provide for the child’s physical needs but are often distant or disengaged emotionally, usually low in warmth and love
Jean Piaget:
Pioneer in the study of developmental psychology who introduced a stage theory of cognitive development that led to better understanding of children's thought processes
Konrad Lorenz
Researcher that focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds a concept he called imprinting
Mod 13:
Adolescence
The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
Puberty
The period of sexual maturation during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
Primary sex characteristics
The reproductive organs
Ovaries, testes, and external genitalia
Secondary sex characteristics
Nonreproductive sexual characteristics such as breasts and hip development in females and voice and facial quality in males
Sexual orientation
Enduring sexual attraction towards the people of the opposite/same/both sexes
Identity
One sense of self - according to erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
Intimacy
In erikson’s theory, ability to form close loving open relationships, a primary task in early adulthood
Lawrence Kohlberg
Created a three stage theory of moral development
Post conventional level
Primitive level of moral reasoning is characterized by a desire to avoid punishment or gain rewards
Mostly kids under 9 show this type or normal reasoning
Conventional level
Reasoning to fit in and play the role of a good citizen
Strong desire to follow the rules and laws of society
Pre-conventional level
References to universal ethical principles that represent the rights or obligations of people
Most don't reach this level
Erik erikson
Created a 8-stage theory of social development:
Trust vs. Mistrust
If needs are dependly met, infants basically develop sense of basic trust
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Toddlers will learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves or they doubt their abilities
Initiative vs. Guilt
Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent
Industry vs. Inferiority
Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks or they feel inferior
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Teenagers work at refinishing a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity or they become confused about who they r
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love or they feel socially isolated
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Middle aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose
Integrity vs. Despair
When reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
The 4 stages of “The Search for Identity”
Experimentation
Exploring and taking advantage of a variety of opportunities
Rebellion
Healthy development builds some independence
“Self”-ishness
Increasingly enough, teens learn about their uniques selves and they move in and out of friendships/romances, new interactions
Optimism and energy
Armed with new and fresh powerful cognitive skills view the world with a fresh perspective
Adulthood
the period in the human lifespan in which full physical and intellectual maturity have been attained
“Stages of Adulthood”
Early adulthood
20-35
Middle adulthood
36-64
Late adulthood
65+
Social clock
The culturally preferred time of social events of marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Emerging adulthood
A period from the late teens to the mid twenties bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood
“The Five Marks”
Age of identity exploration
Process of deciding who u are and what u would like to get otu school love work, etc
Age of instability
Marked by moving from place to place, the force moves usually end a career family in place
Age of self focus
Deciding who to be with, where to go, and what to do without being concerned about parental restrictions
Age of feeling between
Even though u are taking responsibility for your decisions u dont feel like a adult
Age of possibilities
Full of optimism, emerging adults believe they will live better than their parents and find their soulmate
Menopause
When the menstrual cycle ends; when a woman basically experiences her ability to reproduce her ability to reproduce decline
Mid-Life Crisis
a psychological phenomenon often associated with the transition from early adulthood to middle age, usually loss of self of identity and sense of self
Neurocognitive Disorders
Alzheimer’s Disease
A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory reasoning language and finally physical functioning
Dementia
Mental disintegration that accompanies alcoholism, tumor, stroke, aging and most often AD
Fluid intelligence
Ability to reason speedily and abstractly
Decreases with age
Crystallized Intelligence
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
Increases with age
The two basic aspects of our lives that dominate adulthood
Intimacy
Intimacy is the needs that make people want to develop a deep and meaningful connection with another individual
Generativity
generativity is the needs that make people wants to do something useful and create a positive impact for the people around them
Erikson vs. Freud
Mod 14
Social clock
Culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage parenthood and retirement
Emerging adulthood
A period from late teens to mid twenties and sometimes later bridging the gap between the adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood
Menopause
When the menstrual cycle ends also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to decline refuses,
Alzheimer’s Disease
A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory reasoning language and finally physical functioning
Senile dementia
Mental disintegration that accompanies alcoholism tumor stroke aging and most alzheimer's disease
Fluid intelligence
Ability to reason speedily and abstractly
Decreases with age
Crystallized Intelligence
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills
Increases with age
Mod 15
Language
Our spoken written or edited words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning
Phoneme
In language the smallest distinctive sound unit
Morpheme
In language the smallest unit that carries meaning `
Grammar
System of rules that can combine phonemes morphemes and words to produce meaningful communication
Noam Chomsky (1928-)
Linguist who argues that children have a predisposition to learn language as thought their brains were hardwired to pick up vocabulary and rules of grammar
BF Skinner (1904-1990)
Psychologist who argued that children learned language through associations imitation and reinforcement
Mod 16
Learning
The process of gaining through experience relatively permanent and information and behaviors
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response
Stimulus
Anything in the environment that can responded too
Response
Any behavior or response
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
A stimulus that triggers a response relatively and automatically
Salivating at food, smell of onion making ur eyes water, hot object cause reflex to move away
Unconditioned response (UR)
An automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus
Reflex to move away from hot stuff
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that through learning gains power to cause a response
Sound of a bell = means food
Conditioned response (CR)
The response to conditioned stimulus
Sound of bell = means food = salviates for food
Acquisition
The process of developing a learned response
Extinction
In classical conditioning the diminishing of a learned response after repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone
Generalization
Producing the same response to two similar stimuli
Discrimination
The ability to distinguish between two signals or stimuli and produce different responses
Behaviorism
The theory that psychology should be only studied in observable behaviors not mental processes
Cognition
All mental processes associated with thinking knowing and remembering
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Russian physiologist and learning theorist famous for the discovery of classical conditioning in which learning occurs through association
John B Watson (1878-1958)
Founder of behaviorism
Robert Rescorla (1940-)
Developed along with Allan Wagner a their that emphasized the importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning
John Garcia
Mod 17
operant conditioning
A type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior
Reinforcement
Any consequence that increases the future likelihood of a behavior
Punishment
Any consequences that decreases the future likelihood of that behavior
positive reinforcement
In OC, anything that increases the likelihood of that behavior by following it with a desirable state or event
Negative reinforcement
In OC, anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a removal of a undesirable event or state
Primary reinforcement
Something that is naturally reinforcing
Food = if ur hungry
Water = if ur thirsty
Warmth = cold
Secondary reinforcement
Something u learned to value
Money = important
Shaping
Reinforcement of behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired one, the operant technique used to establish new behaviors.
Continuous reinforcement
In OC, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response
Chores done every day = 2 stars
Partial reinforcement schedule
In OC, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses
Did good on math = 2 stars
Bad on science = 1 star for trying
Fixed interval schedule
In OC, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period of time
3 first questions wrong = no stars
1 right answer after = 1 stars
Variable interval schedule
In OC, partial reinforcement schedule that rewards the first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time
Fixed ratio schedule
In OC, a partial reinforcement that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct responses
Variable ratio schedule
In OC, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards after unpredictable of correct answers
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until the learner has a incentive to demonstrate it
Cognitive map
The mental representation of a place
Overjustification effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one likes to do
The reward may lessen and replace the person’s original natural motivational so that the behavior stops, the reward is eliminated
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
Author of the law of effect
LAW OF EFFECT
The principle that forms the basis of operant conditioning
In other words; Behavior with
Favorable consequences will occur more frequently
Unfavorable will occur less frequently
Mod 18
Observational Learning
Learning by observing others
Model
The person observed in observational learning
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Vicarious learning
Learning by seeing the consequences of another person’s behavior
Mirror neurons
Brain cells located in the front of the brain that activate when a person performs a certain action/s or when the person observes another do so
Antisocial behavior
negative , destructive unhelpful behavior
Prosocial behavior
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior