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Step 1: Oxidation by FAD forms double bond between α and β carbons of fatty acyl CoA.
Step 2: Hydration of the alkene forms an alcohol at beta carbon.
Step 3: Oxidation of alcohol by NAD+ converts to β-Ketoacyl-CoA (producing NADH).
Step 4: Thiolysis cleaves bond between α and β carbons, yielding Acetyl-CoA.
Each round produces Acetyl-CoA and shortens the fatty acid chain by two carbons.
Complete oxidation of palmitic acid (C16) produces 8 Acetyl-CoA, requires 7 cycles of beta oxidation, yielding 7 NADH and 7 FADH2.

Total reaction:
$\text{Palmitoyl CoA} + 7 \text{CoASH} + 7 \text{FAD} + 7 \text{NAD}^+ + 7 \text{H}<em>2\text{O} \rightarrow 8 \text{Acetyl CoA} + 7 \text{FADH}</em>2 + 7 \text{(NADH + H}^+)$
Complete beta oxidation of a 20-carbon fatty acid yields either:
A. 8 Acetyl CoA, 7 FADH2, 7 NADH
B. 10 Acetyl CoA, 9 FADH2, 9 NADH
C. 9 Acetyl CoA, 10 FADH2, 10 NADH
D. 20 Acetyl CoA, 20 FADH2, 20 NADH

Glycolysis consists of 10 steps, occurring in the cytosol.
First five reactions (Preparatory Phase): ATP is used to phosphorylate and activate glucose.
Next five reactions (Payoff Phase): net ATP generation occurs.

Hexokinase has 4 isozymes; Hexokinase IV (glucokinase) differs in KM for glucose.
Phosphohexose isomerase converts Glucose 6-phosphate to Fructose 6-phosphate.
Two triose molecules (G3P) are used for every glucose molecule.

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyzes oxidation and phosphorylation, generating NADH.
Substrate level phosphorylation produces 2 ATP from 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate.
Hydration and conversion of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) precedes second substrate-level phosphorylation.
- PEP to Pyruvate reaction strongly favored by tautomerization.

In the presence of HKB99 (a phosphoglycerate mutase inhibitor), potential accumulations include glucose-6-phosphate, phosphoenolpyruvate, 3-phosphoglycerate, 2-phosphoglycerate, or Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.