The Army Air Corps
Chapter Outline
The Army Air Corps
Lesson 1: Airpower in World War II
Lesson 2: Significant Aircraft of World War II
Lesson 3: The Evolution of the Early Air Force
Allied Air Power in World War II
Allied air power was decisive in the war in Western Europe, playing a critical role from the early stages to the final victory.
Victory in the air was complete, achieved through a combination of strategic bombing campaigns, air superiority missions, and tactical support operations that neutralized the Axis air forces.
Contribution to naval power effectively ended the U-boat threat in the Atlantic. Extensive air patrols, convoy escorts, and advanced anti-submarine warfare (ASW) techniques, often involving aircraft like the B-24 Liberator, significantly reduced shipping losses and secured vital supply lines.
Ground support turned the tide in favor of Allies, providing crucial close air support (CAS) for infantry, interdicting enemy supply lines, and conducting reconnaissance missions that severely hampered Axis ground operations.
Quote from the United States Strategic Bombing Survey, 1945: The survey concluded that airpower had been a decisive factor in the defeat of Germany, demonstrating its ability to cripple industrial capacity and devastate enemy morale.
Quick Write: The Army Air Corps
Key Themes: Involvement and Development of Early Air Power
Creation and growth of the Army Air Service and the Army Air Corps, reflecting a gradual yet persistent push for aviation's recognition as a distinct military branch.
Significant developments concerning the Army Air Corps, including technological innovations, doctrinal shifts, and organizational restructuring throughout the interwar period.
Rationale of advocates and objectors to an independent Air Force, highlighting the ideological struggle between proponents of airpower autonomy and traditional military structures.
Creation of a separate Air Corps Headquarters, a crucial step towards greater administrative and operational independence within the broader Army command.
The Role of Brigadier General Billy Mitchell
After WWI, Brigadier General William "Billy" Mitchell, a veteran who observed the nascent power of air warfare during the conflict, aimed to gain military and congressional attention on the transformative potential of airpower. He believed that future wars would be won in the air.
He noted the pivotal role of airpower in the Battle of Saint Mihiel in September 1918, where he commanded nearly 1,500 Allied aircraft. This operation demonstrated the massing of air forces for offensive and defensive tasks, showcasing air superiority, reconnaissance, and bombing capabilities against German positions.
Emergence of airpower as an offensive and defensive tool, capable of striking targets far behind enemy lines and defending friendly forces from air attack.
Mitchell proposed a series of tests to dramatically demonstrate airpower's validity:
Suggested sinking capital ships as tests to showcase aircraft's potential in coastal defense and to prove that battleships were obsolete against aerial bombing.
The Navy reluctantly agreed to these controversial tests in 1921, providing captured German vessels, including the formidable and then-thought "unsinkable" dreadnought SMS Ostfriesland, alongside a submarine and destroyer, for the bombing demonstrations.
Execution of Mitchell's Proposals
On 13 July 1921, Mitchell's pilots successfully sank a destroyer with light bombs, confirming the vulnerability of smaller naval vessels to air attack.
On 18 July, they followed this success by sinking a cruiser, further substantiating airpower's destructive potential against naval targets.
Attempts to sink the heavily armored Ostfriesland initially failed with smaller bombs. However, after explicit orders from Mitchell to employ heavier ordnance and concentrate attacks, heavier bombs (2,000 lbs) were used, resulting in its sinking approximately 20 minutes after final impact on 21 July 1921. This event sent shockwaves through military establishments worldwide.
Though convinced by the dramatic demonstration, the Army and Congress, influenced by traditional military doctrines and budgetary concerns, remained skeptical about granting air power an independent role separate from ground forces. In contrast, many Navy admirals recognized its importance and almost immediately initiated the construction of aircraft carriers, shifting naval strategy.
The Creation and Evolution of Army Air Forces
Significant Developments Leading to Air Corps Formation
Airpower underwent profound changes from 1907 to 1947, a period marked by continuous technological advancements and strategic re-evaluations.
1907: The formation of the Aeronautical Division within the US Army Signal Corps on August 1 marks what many consider the birth of the US Air Force. Initially equipped with a single balloon and later adding its first airplane in 1909, this division was tasked with military aeronautics.
1914-1918: The Aviation Section was active during WWI. Despite starting with a minimal force, pilots increased to 10,000 by war's end to perform various roles, including reconnaissance, artillery spotting, aerial combat, and even nascent strategic bombing.
May 1918: President Woodrow Wilson established the Army Air Service through executive order, consolidating all military aviation under a single command. This marked a significant step towards greater operational autonomy while still remaining an integral part of the Army.
The Army Air Service existed until 1926 and had more autonomy in its daily operations and administration than previous aviation units, though it still reported to the Army Chief of Staff.
Creation of the Army Air Corps
Post WWI funding was severely limited due to widespread demobilization and a return to isolationist policies, driving a renewed desire among airpower advocates for equality and independent funding for military aviation on par with the established Army and Navy branches.
Mitchell promoted the independent air force doctrine, strongly emphasizing the need for strategic air campaigns separate from Army ground forces, believing that airpower could win wars by striking critical enemy infrastructure and industrial centers.
He believed airpower could significantly reduce casualties via effective bombing campaigns that would incapacitate an enemy's ability and will to fight, thereby minimizing the need for costly ground engagements.
His advocacy included proposing a series of bombing tests to represent airpower's overwhelming capabilities against naval forces, aimed at compelling public and political support.
Major Testing and Proposals
1922 Series of non-stop flights: Demonstrating the rapidly increasing range and endurance of aircraft, 1st Lt. Oakley Kelly and 1st Lt. John Macready flew non-stop from Roosevelt Field, New York, to Rockwell Field, San Diego, covering 2,520 miles in 26 hours and 50 minutes. This achievement underscored the potential for long-range offensive and reconnaissance missions.
1924: Mitchell proposed ambitious around-the-world flights, intended to further showcase the reliability and global reach of military aviation. Four Douglas World Cruisers, modified biplanes, began the journey, with two aircraft successfully completing the circumnavigation over 175 days, asserting mission viability even in remote or hostile conditions and proving the logistical feasibility of such endeavors.
1923 Bomb tests against ships: While less publicized than the 1921 Ostfriesland sinking, Mitchell continued to advocate for airpower. During these later demonstrations, whether against decommissioned or target ships, he continued to assert the Air Corps' effectiveness and capability in naval engagements. These tests were part of his ongoing campaign to highlight the vulnerability of surface fleets to aerial attack.
Congressional recognition for the potential of air arm grew following Mitchell's relentless advocacy, leading to calls for legislative reform and proposals for a more formally recognized and empowered Army Air Corps.
The Air Corps Act of 1926
Adopted three main proposals from the Morrow Board, a special board appointed by President Calvin Coolidge to study the organization of Army aviation after the Mitchell court-martial:
Rename Army Air Service to Army Air Corps: This change provided a more prestigious and distinct identity, moving away from being merely a 'service' branch.
Grant a seat in the Army General Staff: This ensured that airpower considerations would be directly represented in high-level strategic planning and decision-making within the Army, giving air leaders a voice they previously lacked.
Establish position of assistant secretary of war for airpower: This new civilian role underscored the importance of aviation policy and provided dedicated oversight and advocacy for the Air Corps' development and funding needs.
Legacy and Influence of Brigadier General Billy Mitchell
Mitchell profoundly influenced the development of the US Air Force doctrine, steadfastly advocating for the bomber as a principal weapon and strategic bombing as a cornerstone of modern warfare.
Early life: The son of Senator John L. Mitchell, he began his military career at 16 as a private during the Spanish-American War, rapidly achieving promotions through the ranks. His experiences during WWI, where he commanded all American air units, solidified his belief in the overwhelming potential of air superiority and the devastating role of bombing in military strategy.
Experienced opposition: His outspoken criticisms of traditional military leadership, particularly the Army and Navy's perceived shortsightedness regarding airpower, led to a highly publicized court-martial for insubordination in 1925. He resigned from the Army in 1926, choosing to continue his advocacy as a civilian.
Died in 1936 without seeing his complete vision of a powerful, independent air service fully materialize. However, his ideas laid the groundwork for future airpower strategy.
Recognized posthumously by Congress with a Congressional Gold Medal in 1946, a decade after his death, acknowledging his prophetic vision and tireless advocacy for airpower that proved crucial in World War II.
Predictions and Omens
Mitchell famously predicted the 1941 Pearl Harbor attack as early as 1924 in a report. He foresaw Japan's potential aggression against US bases, detailing the exact methods, including a surprise aerial attack on Honolulu and the simultaneous use of submarines, highlighting the vulnerability of the fleet to such a strike.
Colonel Ulysses S. Nero: Contributions to Airpower and Bombardment
Overview: Colonel Ulysses S. Nero had a distinguished military career marked by many contributions, including fundamental inventions related to military aviation technologies crucial for bombing accuracy and crew coordination.
Education and early life: Nero started his career early, dropped out of school for work, and later completed high school before enlisting at age 19. He served in World War I, where he transitioned into air service, developing a keen interest in aviation mechanics and tactics.
Developed communication innovation enabling light coordination among crews, dramatically improving formation flying and bombing precision. He also invented critical bombsight technology, enhancing the accuracy of aerial bombardment.
Notable accomplishments:
He was involved in the technical and operational aspects of the Mitchell-arranged bombing tests, including those demonstrating capabilities against targets like the USS New Jersey and USS Virginia, showcasing the effectiveness of air-to-sea attacks.
Recognized for his exceptional technical acumen, Nero established a strong military career, obtaining multiple patents that significantly advanced military technology, such as improved bomb fuses and aiming devices, which became standard equipment for early bomber fleets.
Growth of the Army Air Corps
The change in name to Army Air Corps in 1926 represented a symbolic and functional shift towards endorsing more independent air missions, although full autonomy remained a distant goal.
Initially, growth was slow due to post-war optimism about the rarity of large-scale warfare, coupled with prevalent isolationist sentiments and severely decreased military budgets following WWI.
The Great Depression prompted further drastic cuts to military spending. However, the escalating fear of impending war in Europe and Asia, particularly with the rise of aggressive totalitarian regimes, sparked an urgent need for military buildup.
Congressional actions, largely in response to President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s fervent advocacy for military rebuilding and increased airpower, initiated a significant growth in pilot numbers, aircraft procurement, and military aviation projects throughout the late 1930s.
Training and Civilian Contributions
The development of the Civilian Pilot Training Program in 1939, a government-funded initiative, was instrumental in generating thousands of pilots by providing flight training at civilian schools across the country. This program proved crucial for rapidly amassing aviation resources necessary for defense preparation ahead of World War II.
1939: The launching of civilian flight schools, often affiliated with colleges and universities, became a vital pipeline for pilot training, significantly expanding the pool of airmen available for military service.
Significant steps were also taken to integrate African-Americans into military aviation, effectively facilitating diversity. This led to the establishment of training programs at Tuskegee Army Airfield and the eventual formation of the famed Tuskegee Airmen, breaking racial barriers in the armed forces.
Significant Developments in Aviation Technology
Focus shifted towards developing advanced aircraft units between the wars with the strategic aim to fulfill long-range bombardment capabilities. This era saw remarkable progress in aerodynamics, engine design, and navigation systems.
Intense competition among manufacturers for multi-engine bomber contracts reflected the urgency to innovate. Boeing’s B-17 Flying Fortress emerged as a key asset, following numerous advancements in military air strategy that prioritized long-range, high-altitude precision bombing. Its development was a testament to the importance of collaborative efforts between government and industry.
The importance of strategic contracts and collaborations to enhance military air power was evident as the government invested heavily in prototypes and production to equip the burgeoning Air Corps.
The Air Corps Act of 1926 distinctly reflected advocates’ desires for advancement and independence amidst ongoing skepticism from traditionalists, ensuring a dedicated pathway for aviation's growth.
Rationale of Advocates for Independence
Proponents argued that airpower necessitated autonomy to overcome previous limitations and chronic funding issues experienced while subordinated to the Army structure. They envisioned airpower as a strategic, independent force, capable of decisively impacting distant conflicts without direct ground engagement.
The compelling need for independence was viewed as pivotal for effective national defense, allowing for the unhindered development of air doctrine, procurement of specialized aircraft, and independent command structures essential for strategic air operations.
Rationale of Objectors to Independence
Retaining the Air Corps within the Army was primarily due to historical reliance on land-centric force constructs for national defense. Many viewed airpower as merely a supporting arm for ground forces, not a standalone entity.
Ground forces commanders typically dismissed airpower's potential to singularly influence warfare, often citing its perceived limitations in accuracy, payload, and reliability during its early developmental stages, preferring to invest in well-established ground and naval assets.
Major General Benjamin Foulois
Major General Benjamin Foulois had a long and distinguished journey through the ranks, from an early military enlistee and pioneer aviator to eventually becoming the Chief of the Air Corps from 1931 to 1935. He was a consistent advocate for an independent air force, reflecting its growing importance in modern warfare and tirelessly working to modernize the Air Corps despite budget constraints.
Structural Revisions Within Military Command
General Headquarters Air Force (GHQAF) was proposed and activated in 1935 to separate combat units from administrative functions of the Air Corps, establishing a concentrated, unified command structure focused purely on combat capacity and operational readiness. This was a significant step towards greater operational independence.
This evolution set the foundational stage for the Army Air Forces (AAF), which was officially launched on 20 June 1941, merging the GHQAF and the Air Corps. The AAF was operationally positioned as the dominant air component of the US Army just ahead of active engagement in World War II, signifying a maturation of American airpower into a formidable military branch.
Conclusion
Key motifs highlighted throughout the chapter reflect the complex evolution of American military aviation from a dependent air service to a more autonomous and eventually dominant branch, overcoming significant historical, financial, and doctrinal hurdles amidst evolving global military complexities that ultimately proved its indispensable role in modern warfare.