The directory

The Constitution of 1795

Overview

  • The Constitution of 1795 was drafted in August 1795, reflecting a conservative republicanism and a desire for stability that did not compromise the ideals established in 1789.

Legislative Structure

  • National Legislative Assembly: Established as a bicameral legislature consisting of:

    • Lower House:

    • Known as the Council of 500

    • Function: Initiate legislation.

    • Upper House:

    • Composed of Council of Elders, which included 250 members.

    • Members must be married or widowed and over age 40.

    • Function: Accept or reject proposed laws.

Member Selection

  • Total of 750 members across both chambers.

  • Elected by a limited electors' base:

    • Electors must own or rent property valued at between 100 and 200 days' labor.

    • This limit reduced the electorate to approximately 30,000 individuals, significantly less than the electorate established by the Constitution of 1791.

  • Electors chosen by active citizens defined as:

    • All male taxpayers over the age of 21.

Executive Authority

  • The executive branch, known as the Directory, consisted of five directors.

  • Directors elected by the Council of Elders from a list provided by the Council of 500.

Continuity from the Old Order

  • The National Convention mandated that two-thirds of the new members of the National Assembly must be drawn from its own ranks, leading to unrest and insurrection in Paris at the beginning of October, which was quelled by military intervention.

The Decline of the Committee of Public Safety

Goals and Measures

  • The Law of 14 Frimaire (December 4, 1793):

    • Aimed at centralizing the administration of France and asserting greater control.

    • Sought to mitigate the excesses of the Reign of Terror.

  • Activities of representatives and revolutionary armies were increasingly scrutinized.

  • The anti-Christian campaign was moderated.

Recourse Against Radical Elements

  • In 1794, the Committee began turning against its former radical supporters, executing leaders of the Paris Commune, henceforth making the Commune a compliant entity.

  • These actions alienated an essential segment of political support, which initially bolstered the Committee.

Successful Military Campaigns

  • France triumphed in military engagements against foreign adversaries, which lessened the necessity for ongoing Terror.

Robespierre's Dominance

  • Maximilien Robespierre, now pivotal, became fixated on eliminating corruption within the Republic to achieve his vision of Republic of Virtue.

  • Fears spread among deputies in the National Convention regarding their safety while Robespierre wielded unchecked power.

  • An anti-Robespierre coalition emerged, which ultimately voted to condemn him.

  • Robespierre was executed on July 28, 1794—marking a significant reaction against the more radical phase of the Revolution.

Achievements of the National Convention

  • Successful establishment of a nation in arms preserved the revolution against both domestic and foreign adversaries, securing its ideals and thwarting the restoration of the monarchy.

  • Obliterated imminent counterrevolutionary threats while simultaneously showcasing the repercussions of the use of violence in domestic politics.

The Reaction and Directory Period

Transition Period

  • Post-Robespierre, the fervor of radical revolution began to ease, stimulating the Thermidorean Reaction.

  • The National Convention curtailed the Committee of Public Safety's influence, disbanded the Jacobin Club, enhanced protection for deputies, and reinstated the public worship of churches.

  • A decree in February 21, 1795, ensured freedom of worship for all cults.

Economic Policies and Social Changes

  • Economic regulation shifted towards laissez-faire policies, signifying a regaining of moderate control.

  • Cultural Resurgence: Previously abandoned elaborate fashions returned, and gambling enjoyed a resurgence, notably among wealthier classes such as the “gilded youth.” - who are the guilded youth?

Political Pressure

  • The Directory faced opposition from both royalists on the right, who longed for a monarchy, and revitalized Jacobin forces on the left, exacerbated by economic woes, specifically a catastrophic drop in the value of assignats.

  • Radical thinkers, including Gracchus Babeuf, who criticized wealth disparities, called for the abolition of private property through his Conspiracy of Equals; however, it was quashed in 1796 and led to his execution in 1797.

Instability and Military Dependence

  • Failing to stabilize the nation economically or politically, the Directory increasingly turned to military solutions, culminating in a coup d'état in 1799. General Napoleon Bonaparte successfully seized power, heralding a new era.

The Age of Napoleon

Napoleon's Ascendancy

  • Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) exerted profound influence on both French and European history from 1799 to 1815.

  • His coup occurred ten years after the French Revolution’s inception, marking both its conclusion and his emergence as a consequential figure—referring to himself as the Son of the Revolution.

Preservation and Destruction of Revolutionary Ideals

  • Napoleon claimed to embody the Revolution, assuring that the French populace recognized him as the protector of beneficial aspects derived from revolutionary initiatives.

Chronology of the French Revolution

  • 1787: Assembly of Notables

  • 1789: National Assembly (Constituent Assembly) begins.

  • May 5, 1789: Meeting of the Estates-General.

  • June 17, 1789: Formation of National Assembly.

  • June 20, 1789: Tennis Court Oath.

  • July 14, 1789: Fall of the Bastille.

  • Summer 1789: The Great Fear.

  • August 26, 1789: Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

  • October 5-6, 1789: Women’s march to Versailles; king’s return to Paris.

  • July 12, 1790: Civil Constitution of the Clergy.

  • June 20-21, 1791: Flight of the king.

  • 1791-1792: Legislative Assembly period.

  • April 20, 1792: France declares war on Austria.

  • August 10, 1792: Attack on the royal palace.

  • 1792-1795: National Convention period.

  • September 21, 1792: Abolition of the monarchy.

  • January 21, 1793: Execution of the king.

  • August 23, 1793: Universal mobilization of the nation.

  • July 28, 1794: Execution of Robespierre.

  • 1795-1799: Directory period.

  • August 22, 1795: Adoption of the Constitution of 1795.

Biography of Napoleon

  • Napoleon was born in Corsica in 1769, shortly after France took control of the island.

  • As the son of an Italian lawyer connected to Florentine nobility, he grew disciplined and thrifty while maintaining deep loyalty to his family.

  • His education began in Autun, France, learning to speak French and later earning a royal scholarship to military school. He changed his name from Napoleone Buonaparte to Napoleon.

  • After his commission as a lieutenant in 1785, Napoleon faced social barriers yet extensively read influential works and studied military strategies from past leaders, including Alexander the Great, Charlemagne, and Frederick the Great.

Conclusion

  • The French Revolution not only facilitated the rise of Napoleon but also informed his governance, where he sought to navigate the fine balance between revolutionary ideals and authoritative power.

Note: This document captures detailed information on the pivotal moments and figures of the French Revolution and the subsequent rise of Napoleon, reconstructing a narrative that illustrates both ideological battles and the evolution of governance in France.