Social Psychology and Behavioral Science

Social Psychology

  • Attribution

    • Definition: The process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events.

    • Types of Attribution:

    • Situational Attribution: Assigning the cause of behavior to external factors such as environment or context.

    • Dispositional Attribution: Assigning the cause of behavior to internal factors, such as personality traits or attitudes.

    • Actor-Observer Effect: The tendency to attribute one's own actions to situational factors while attributing others' actions to their characteristics.

    • Self-Serving Bias: The inclination to attribute positive outcomes to internal factors and negative outcomes to external factors.

    • Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors when explaining others' behavior while underestimating situational factors.

  • Group Dynamics

    • Groupthink vs. Group Polarization:

    • Groupthink: A psychological phenomenon where the desire for harmony in a decision-making group leads to irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcomes.

    • Group Polarization: The tendency for group discussion to enhance the group's initial leanings, leading to more extreme positions.

    • Ingroup vs. Outgroup:

    • Ingroup: A social group to which a person psychologically identifies as belonging.

    • Outgroup: A social group with which an individual does not identify.

    • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that causes itself to become true due to the behavior it generates.

  • Altruism and Aggression

    • Bystander Effect: The social psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.

    • Cognitive Dissonance: A psychological state that arises when a person experiences conflict between their beliefs and actions, often leading to discomfort and a desire to resolve the inconsistency.

  • Social Influence

    • Conformity: The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, influenced by social pressure.

    • Obedience: Compliance with an order or command from an authority figure.

    • Compliance: The act of agreeing to a request or demand.

    • Informational Influence vs. Normative Influence:

    • Informational Influence: When individuals conform to others’ behavior to be correct.

    • Normative Influence: When individuals conform to be liked or accepted by a group.

  • Persuasion

    • Mere-Exposure Effect: The phenomenon whereby people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.

    • Routes of Persuasion:

    • Central Route: Persuasion that relies on logical arguments and evidence.

    • Peripheral Route: Persuasion that relies on superficial cues or appeals.

  • Cultural Constructs

    • Individualistic Cultures: Cultures that emphasize personal goals and self-identity over group goals.

    • Collectivist Cultures: Cultures that prioritize group goals and the well-being of the group over personal aspirations.

  • Discrimination, Prejudice, and Stereotypes:

    • Discrimination: The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, often based on characteristics such as race, age, or gender.

    • Prejudice: A preconceived opinion not based on reason or actual experience; often involves negative feelings toward a group.

    • Stereotypes: Oversimplified generalizations about a group of people.

Scientific Basis and Research

  • Five Research Methods in Psychology:

    • Experimental, correlational, observational, case studies, and surveys.

  • Ethical Guidelines in Research:

    • Principles of respect, beneficence, and justice must be upheld to ensure participant welfare and rights.

  • Measures of Central Tendency:

    • Mean: The average of a data set, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values.

    • Median: The middle value when data is arranged in order.

    • Mode: The value that appears most frequently in a data set.

  • Experimental Design:

    • Key components include samples, formulation of hypotheses, use of single- and double-blind methodologies, controlling for placebo effects, and employing both control and experimental groups.

  • Variables in Research:

    • Independent Variable: The manipulated variable in an experiment.

    • Dependent Variable: The outcome measured in an experiment.

    • Confounding Variables: Any variable other than the independent variable that may affect the dependent variable.

  • Correlation in Research:

    • Positive Correlation: A relationship where two variables increase or decrease together.

    • Negative Correlation: A relationship where one variable increases while the other decreases.

    • Illusory Correlation: The perception of a relationship between two variables when none exists.

    • Correlation Coefficient: A numeric representation (r) of the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, values range from -1 to 1.

  • Statistical Measures:

    • Standard Deviation: A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

    • Skewed Graphs: Graphs that are asymmetrical due to the presence of outliers or a long tail in one direction.

  • Correlation vs. Causation: Understanding that correlation does not imply causation; two variables may correlate without one causing the other.

  • Locus of Control:

    • Internal Locus of Control: The belief that one controls their own fate and outcomes.

    • External Locus of Control: The belief that outside forces dictate events.

Perspectives in Psychology

Biological Basis of Behavior and States of Consciousness

  • Brain Structures and Functions:

    • Understanding of the brain's anatomy, including various lobes and their respective functions.

  • Broca's Area vs. Wernicke's Area:

    • Broca's Area: Located in the frontal lobe, crucial for speech production.

    • Wernicke's Area: Located in the temporal lobe, essential for language comprehension.

  • Neuronal Functioning:

    • Neuron operation involves electrical impulses (action potentials), synaptic transmission, and involvement of glial cells for support in neural processes.

  • Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections throughout life.

  • Neurotransmitters and Hormones:

    • Chemical messengers in the body that influence various physiological and psychological functions.

  • Nature vs. Nurture Debate: Discussion surrounding the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development.

  • Heredity: The passing of traits from parents to offspring, contributing to individual differences in behavior and personality.

  • Nervous System Structures:

    • Central Nervous System (CNS): Comprising the brain and spinal cord.

    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Connecting the CNS to limbs and organs.

    • Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates involuntary functions, consisting of the sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) branches.

  • Drug Categories and Effects:

    • Agonists: Chemicals that enhance the action of neurotransmitters.

    • Antagonists: Chemicals that inhibit the action of neurotransmitters.

    • Addiction, Tolerance, Withdrawal: Processes related to drug dependence and the body's adjustment to the presence or absence of substances.

  • Sleep:

    • Different sleep cycles (REM and non-REM sleep), sleep disorders (insomnia, sleep apnea), and circadian rhythm regulation.

    • Theories of dreams, including psychoanalytic and activation-synthesis theory.

  • Brain Imaging Techniques:

    • Types of scans including MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging), fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging), EEG (Electroencephalography), and lesioning methods used to study brain function.

Sensation and Perception

  • Visual and Auditory Cues:

    • Binocular Cues: Depth cues such as retinal disparity and convergence.

    • Monocular Cues: Depth cues available to either eye alone, such as relative size, interposition, and linear perspective.

  • Perceptual Set:

    • Cognitive predisposition to perceive things in a certain way based on experiences, expectations, and context (e.g., proximity, closure, similarity).

  • Processing Types:

    • Top-Down Processing: Interpretations based on prior knowledge or expectations.

    • Bottom-Up Processing: Constructing perceptions from the individual pieces of sensory information.

  • Figure-Ground Perception: The ability to distinguish objects from their background.

  • Sensation Thresholds:

    • Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulus intensity needed for detection by a sensory system.

    • Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest change in stimulus that can be detected, as expressed in Weber's Law: JND=kimesIJND = k imes I (where $I$ is the initial intensity).

  • Sensory Adaptation: The reduction in sensitivity to a stimulus after constant exposure.

  • Structure and Function of Senses:

    • Details regarding the anatomy of the ear and eyes and their roles in the sensation process.

  • Transduction: The process by which sensory receptors convert sensory stimulation into neural impulses.

  • Vestibular vs. Kinesthetic Senses:

    • Vestibular System: Responsible for balance and spatial orientation.

    • Kinesthetic Sense: Perception of body position and movement.

  • Photoreceptors:

    • Rods: Responsible for vision in dim light.

    • Cones: Responsible for color vision and fine detail.

  • Theories of Vision and Hearing:

    • Includes various explanations addressing how we perceive visual and auditory stimuli.

  • Blindness Phenomena:

    • Change Blindness: A perceptual phenomenon where a change in a visual stimulus goes unnoticed.

    • Inattentional Blindness: The failure to notice a fully visible but unexpected object because attention is engaged elsewhere.