AP Psychology Midterm :)
INTRO
Psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
is a “soft science”
Science
“Man’s study of God’s creation by means of observation and experimentation”
Behavior
anything an organism does
any action we can observe and record
ex. yelling, smiling, blinking
Mental processes
the internal subjective expereiences we infer from behavior
ex. sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, feelings
Naturalist Worldview
people = physical (no soul)
people = product of biology/chemistry and environment
eons of impartial evolution and physical processes
Biblical Worldview
people have a physical side influenced by biology, chemitrsy, and environment
physical (mortal) + spiritual side (soul, eternal)
accountable to God
unique creation made in God’s image (people are worth a lot)
UNIT 0
How to design, conduct, and analyze a valid scientific experiment
Ways to Collect Data
Case Study
one person/situation is studied in-depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
DEEP analysis
cannot discern general truths, varied interpretation
Survey
questioning a representative, random sample of a group (correlational)
looks at many cases at once
quick data
may have bias in sampling or words
Sampling
population: all individuals in the group being studied (must be defined)
random sample: a subset that fairly represents a population
all individuals have an equal chance of being chosen
How we will do it
Wording effects
misleading phrases, ambiguous terms, confusing grammar, or emotionally charged vocabulary
may product flawed results
changes vocab to make you think about it a certain way
Naturalistic Observation
observe/ record behavior in a naturally occuring situation without trying to manipulate/control situation
learn about what currently exists
does not explain behavior
Scientific experiement (Gold Standard of Science)
attempts to determine cause and effect
isolate 1 variable of interest
Independent variable: what you change
control all other variables
measure outcomes
Dependent variables: depends on what you change, what you record and observe
Random assignment (Key to validity)
make sure no pattern to how you assign test subjects to control vs experiemental groups
negates confounding variables
variables you can’t control
different from random sample!!!!!!!
Random sample = who participates
Random assignment = which group does sample go to?
Blindness
Single-blind procedure
participants don’t know which group they are in
Double-blind (gold standard)
both participants and test administrators don’t know which group
Placebo Effect
giving control group inert substance/condition, which the recipient assumes is active
placebo by itself often produces results
Sampling bias
sample does not accurately represent population
results in biased results
CORRELATION =/= CAUSATION
Illusory Correlation
perceiving a non-existent correlation or stronger-than-actual relationship
random coincidence
ex. lucky charm 🍀, moon
STATISTICS
mean: arithmatic average
mode: value that occurs the most
median: middle value
range: highest-lowest
standard deviation: how spread out the values are
Statistical significance
how likely it is that this result happened by chance
implies the importance of results
needs reliable averages and relatively large differences between averages (too big to be random chance)
Hindsight bias:
tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
“I knew it was gonna happen!”
Confirmation Bias 🍒🌙
when we look for information that supports our pre-existing opinion
starts with a view → look for info that upholds it
Overconfidence
a tendency to think we know more than we do
leads to misinterpretation of data
Ethics in Research
Reasons for using animals
stand-in for humans
easier to get in vivo controlled experiment (cage)
Safeguards
Reduction: don’t use too many
Refinement: get better at procedure to reduce harm
Replacement: only use if necessary
Ethics in Human Research
Informed consent
people part of experiment know the context of the experiment
Protection from harm and discomfort
Maintain confidentiality (HIPAA)
Debriefing
“let me tell you what just happened”
MODULE 1: BIOLOGICAL BASES OF PSYCHOLOGY
Nature vs Nurture
today’s science views traits and behaviors arising from an interaction of nature and nurture
how it impact’s a person’s personality as a result
Nurture works on what nature provides
Interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (like environment) depends on another factor (like heredity)
NATURE THROUGH NURTURE
2 concepts are not at opposition, but work together
almost all traits are impacted to some degree by both
ex height
Epigenetics (“above” or “in addition to” genetics)
the study of molecular mechanisms by which environment can influence genetic expression
“Which parts of my DNA will I use now?”
ex. white fox 🦊❄️
Heredity → ← environment
All things psychological are simultaneously biological
Twin Studies:
identical: same genetics
fraternal: different genes, but born at the same time
Evolutionary Psychology (works on existing genes)
Adaptation: the process by which a species becomes fitted to its environment (change)
Natural Selection: the inherited traits enabling an organism to best survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Survival of the Fittest: organism that best survives and reproduces
Fit = survive long enough to reproduce
Mutation: a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
technically any change to genetic code = mutation
only way to INTRODUCE new genetic material
Evolutionary Psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
studies how we are alike
Behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and the limits of genetic + environmental influences on behavior
studies how we are different
ex. modern eugenics (selecting babies based on genetics)
No more than 5% of human genetic differences arise from population group differences
Heredity
the passing on physical or mental characteristics generally from 1 generation to another
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
a sequence of 4 bases gives the code for proteins
Chromosome
long DNA molecule containing thousands of genes
humans have 23 different types
randomly assorted
Diploid
having 2 versions of each chromosome
humans have 46 total chromosomes
Genes
biochemical unit of heredity
unit of heredity info occupying a fixed position on chromosome
Allele: all the different options for genes
Genome
full set of chromosomes (all inheritable traits of organism)
ALL the DNA of an organism (all 23 pairs of chromosomes)
gene → chromosome → Genome
MODULE 1.2: Nervous system
Nervous system
the body’s fast, electrochemical communication network
consists of nerve and glial cells
allows whole body to communicate with itself
Neuron
single nerve cell
Functions: send messages, process information, make decisions, and send signals to execute commands throughout body
TYPES:
Sensory (afferent): ARRIVE, carries info from tissues and sensory receptors to CNS
Motor (efferent): EXIT, carry outgoing info from the CNS to the muscles and glands
Interneurons: within the brain and spinal cord; communicate internally and process info (relay info farther inside the CNS)
makes decisions
BILLIONS
Other sensations:
pain
heat
equilibrium (gravity)
pressure
Nerve:
bundle of neurons that form neural cables to send messages
Neural Networks
clusters of neurons that layer together to work on connected tasks
neuron → Nerve → Neural network
Reflex
simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus
ex. reflex arc 🦵
ex. pain
jerk happens before/same time you touch something hot (nerves sensed it before)
Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain + spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
all other nerves
Somatic (conscious control)
communication from the brain → spinal cord → muscles → bones
responses carried out by motor neurons
Autonomic (self-regulate)
maintain homeostasis
primarily involuntary functions
sensory and motor neurons
INSIDE AUTONOMIC
Sympathetic Nervous System
“fight or flight!!!!!” 💥💥💥
allocate resources (digestion)
stop functions we don’t need
heightened awareness (heartbeat for blood flow)
adrenaline (muscle overdrive)
focus
pupils dilate
maximum effort, strength, and function 💪
Parasympathetic Nervous System
“rest and relaxation” 💤💤💤
pupils contract
heart beat slows
digestion
healing
blood flow
happens ideally after sympathetic
DIAGRAMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM
MODULE 1.3: NEURON FIRING
Dendrites “deliver”
bushy, branching cell that receives and conduct electrical impulses toward cell body
Axon “away”
loooong segmented extension that conducts signals to other neurons or to muscles/glands
Myelin sheath
special cell wraps many times around axon
enables for faster transmissions as impulses race from 1 node to next
not all nerves need quickness though! (ex thinking cells)
gray matter = not mylenated
white matter = mylenated
Glial cells “Helper cells”
cells that support, nourish, and protect neurons
glials are cells in the nervous system that are not neurons
play a role in learning, thinking, and remembering
help feed, create myelin for insulation, guiding
*neurons need help with basic things lol
CARRYING A SIGNAL
Action Potential (how a signal gets though 1 neuron)
a neural impulse (from start to finish), brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Na+ and K+ ions rapidly switch places along a nerve membrane as a series of “gates” and “channels” open and close
causes brief electrical imbalance 🎱
does not need ATP
Threshold
minimum level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential
must be enough
Refractory period ⛔🛑
a brief pause that occurs after a neuron has fired
no more action potential can occur until axon returns to its resting state
NEEDS ATP (reset)
limits to how fast you can fire (how soon you can fire neuron again)
All or Nothing response [one neuron]
a neuron either fires or not fire
more # of nerves = stronger response
BETWEEN NERVES
Synapse
the junction between the axon of one neuron and dendrite of another
“synaptic gap”
how hormones interact with nervous system
Neurotransmitters “minute-men” 🚣🚣🚣
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap
action potential releases → travel across synaptic gap → bind to receptors → cause new action potential → go back
Reuptake
a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
allows a reset for next signal
affects how long a chemical signal lasts
TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS (affect behavior/mental processes)
Endorphins “morphine within”
natural, opioid-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleaser
Acetylcholine (ACh)
best known to influence learning, memory, and muscle action
signal to tell you you’re in pain
Dopamine
involved in in movement, learning, attention, and the brain’s reward system, influencing motivation and pleasure.
Big Idea: Important for our bodies to be able to control both sending and stopping a signal
Agonist
molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s actions
mimic, block reuptake, increase production
ex. morphine/heroin for endorphin
Antagonist
molecule that inhibits/blocks a neurotransmitter’s actions
block receptor sites, decrease production, or decrease release of neurotransmitters
(wrong molecule in receptor = signal does not go through)
ex. curate, a poison, blocks Ach + causes paralysis
MODULE 1.3B: SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS
Endocrine system
body system’s “slow” chemical communication system, set of glands and fat tissues that secrete hormones into bloodstream
maintains homeostasis
system is slower than nervous system, but longer-lasting (powerful!!)
Hormones
chemical messengers manufactured by endocrine glands, travel through bloodstream and affect other tissues
ex. adrenaline, insulin, melatonin
MODULE 1.4a: PSYCH + BIOLOGY
Biological Psychology
scientific links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
Phrenology (Frank Gall)
study of the skull and its bumps
Bio-psych-social approach
integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
explanation
Levels of analysis: differing complementary views for analyzing any given phenomenon
*everything is connected!!
→ Bio influence:
- genetic predisposition
- mutation
- natural selection
→ Psych influence:
- learned fears
- emotional response
- cognitive processing (my experiences in my mind)
→ Social-cultural influences:
- presence of others
- expectations
- peer + group
- compelling model (pop culture)
- people around me
Neuroplasticity (traffic roads 🚸)
brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood (adapt)
1. reorganize after damage (old nerves → new nerve use)
2. building new pathways (neural connection) based on experience
learning!
myelination of existing nerves
Does NOT mean you are growing new brain cells → existing brain cells are learning and adapting
Grow new connection
Myelination (repetition)
Repair broken connection
BRAIN SCANS
EEG (electroencephalogram) [ELEVEN FROM STRANGER THINGS] 〰️〰️〰️
an amplified recording of the brain’s natural waves of electrical activity
measured by electrodes on the scalp
real-time
sleeping
MEG (magnetoencephalography) [TURBAN] ⬜
a brain imaging technique that measures and senses magnetic fields from brain’s natural activity
3D imagery
real-time
on an existing magnetic field
CT (computed tomography) 🧀
x-ray images of the head. combined into a composite representation of a slice of brain’s structures
radiation
PET (position emission tomography) 🧁
a technique for detecting brain activity that displays a radioactive form of glucose while brain performs a task
*brain absorbs energy
radioactive
sugar → bloodstream → brain
which part of brain is using energy?
MRI (magnetic resonance imagery) 🧲
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissues
*uses magnets but does not sense
introduces new magnetic field
can be used on diff parts of the body
non-invasive
fMRI: bloodflow
THE BRAIN 🧠— higher = conscious,,,, lower = automatic
Forebrain: think, decision, conscious and cognitive
cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus
Midbrain: motor function and reflex
atop brainstem
control panel/highway for neurons 🛣️
Hindbrain: essential survival functions (breathing, sleeping, wakefulness)
medulla, pons, cerebellum
[Hindbrain]
Brainstem
automatic + survival functions
nerves cross over here
Medulla (oblongata)— base of brainstem
controls heartbeat + breathing, vasoconstriction, swallowing, vomiting
[Forebrain]
Thalamus: directs messages to cortex → cerebellum/medulla
“air-traffic control” ✈️
Reticular Formation
HOLYYYYYYYYADD EVERYTHING LATER OMGG
Neurogenesis
formation of new neurons; occurs as a baby
Split Brain
condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain’s 2 hemispheres by severing the corpus collosum
corpus collosum: large bond of neural fibers that connects 2 brain hemispheres (carries messages between them)
HE * ART → sees art (left brain controls language)
Function is there, but can’t coordinate or communicate
Left hemisphere
right side movement and sensory function
logical reasoning
math processing
language
Right hemisphere
left side movement and sensory function
facial recognition
spatial reasoning
self awareness
Limbic System (center of emotions)
a neural system that is associated with emotions, drives, and memory
link between what we feel as emotion and what our body does
includes:
amygdala (strong emotions
fear and rage 😡
thalamus
pituitary gland
hypothalamus (brain of the brain 🧠🤵)
controls hormonal release of pituitary
directs maintenance
hunger, thirst, body temp
emotion and reward (dopamine)
hippocampus (memories)
spatial memory
processes conscious memories
Frontal lobe helps us make judgement about how to express emotion
MODULE 1.5: SLEEP
Consciousness (everything i’m aware of)
our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment
Cognitive neuroscience
interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remembering, and communciating)
conscious experience = many brain areas working synchronously
stronger stimuli → more areas
weaker stimuli → engage fewer areas
Duel- processing
we process new info both explicitly and implicitly
“high-road” and “low-road”
→ Parallel Processing: processing multiple aspects of a stimulus simultaneously; fast, effortless, unconscious
→ Sequential Processing: processing 1 aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; process new info/solve difficult problems; effortful
Blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
evidence of dual processing
no conscious sensory input processing
unconscious visual responses
Sleep
a periodic, natural loss of consciousness — as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from coma, anesthesia
unique state of altered consciousness
unaware to some stimuli while aware to others
Circadian Rhythm
our biological regular rhythms set to a 24-hr cycle
melatonin and caffeine release
body temp, energy levels, and wakefulness
may change with age and experience
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm
adjusts melatonin production in response to LIGHT
SLEEP STAGES 🌙
Alpha waves:
relatively slow brain waves of relaxed, awake state. Occurs right before sleep
Sleep cycle
each cycle = 90 minutes, 4 stages
NREM: all sleep stages except for REM sleep
N1 — brief stage that includes hallucinations or hypnogogic sensations
Hallucinations: false sensory experiences
Hypnogogic sensations: bizarre experiences like jerking, floating, or falling
N2 — sleep spindles on EEG, ~20 minutes long
N3 — deep sleep, difficult to awaken
Delta waves: large, slow brain waves of deep sleep occurs (repair/memories)
REM: Rapid Eye Movement sleep
heartrate rises, rapid breathing
dreams
AKA “paradoxical sleep” — muscles are relaxed but brain is awake
N1 → N2 → N3 → N2 → REM
Sleep deprivation
condition that occurs when an individual does not get enough sleep, resulting in impaired cognitive functioning, mood changes, and decreased alertness
Effects:
lower energy, aggression, moodiness
metabolism upset and weight gain
lowered immune system functioning
decreased attention span, slowed reaction, memory issues
Insomnia
recurring problems in falling and staying asleep
Decrease in REM sleep, 1/5 adults
Narcolepsy
uncontrollable sleep attacks
lapse directly into REM sleep
Sleep Apnea
temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
REM Sleep behavior disorder
normal REM paralysis does not occue
kicking, punching, twitching
Sleep walking
complex motor behavior in N3
REM Rebound
tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
Dreams
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind
sensory stimuli can be incorporated
→ Why we dream??
info processing/consolidation
physiological function
activation synthesis
cognitive development
dreams reflect person’s knowledge and understadning
stimulate worst-case scenarios
wish fulfillment
subconscious feelings manifest in dreams
MODULE 1.6: SENSATIONS
Sensation
physically taking in stimuli
process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Sensory Receptors 👃👄👁️👂
sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli
Perception
how our brain interprets sensory info
enables us to draw meaningful conclusions
“how we think or feel about it”
Bottom-up processing
begins with sensory receptors → brain’s integration of sensory info
often used in new situations
“Find out mode”
building up to understanding/perception
Top-down processing
guided by higher-level mental processes, we process details based on our experience and expectations
apply prior knowledge to new situations
use prior mental knowledge
makes us miss/skip/bias things
Transduction
conversion of 1 energy form to another
→ 1. Receive: physical input reaches sensory cells
2. Transform: physical signal → nerve impulse
3. Deliver: signal travels to brain (interpretation)
Psychophysics
study of relationships between physical stimuli and our psychological experiences of them
how we sense vs how we feel
Absolute Threshold
minimum stimulus energy required to detect a stimulus 50% of the time
Signal Detection theory
absolute threshold doesn’t exist
thresholds depends on a person’s experiences, expectations, motivation, alertness, environment
predicts how and when we detect presence of faint stimulus amid background simulation
stimulus: Any event or situation that evokes a response
simulation: The input of sensory information (such as sights, sounds, or touch) that activates the brain and nervous system
overall process or amount of sensory input
Subliminal
stimulus is there, but below absolute threshold for conscious awareness
senses are reached but didnt notice
Difference Threshold
minimum difference between 2 stimuli needed for detection 50% of the time (somewhere we notice a difference)
Weber’s Law
2 stimuli must differ by a minimum percentage% (rather than constant amount) to be perceived as different
Sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity due to constant stimulation
nerve cells fire less frequently
focus on changing stimuli > constant stimuli
Hue
determined by the wavelength of light (color we interpret)
Intensity
determined by wave amplitude
Cornea
clear, protective out layer in front of pupil and iris
Pupil
“black” center of eye, opening through the iris that allows light to enter
absorbs light
Iris
colored muscle circling pupil that opens and closes pupil
Lens
clear hard bi-concave disc that focuses light onto the retina
Accommodation
process of lens changing shape to focus
ciliary muscles
Retina
thing layer covering back of eye
receives inverted image from the lens
Fovea centralis
central focal point on the retina, cones cluster here
most sensitive part of the eye
Rods
receptors that detect black, white, and gray
sensitive to movement
helps with peripheral and twilight vision
Cones
detect fine detail and color vision
require higher light levels
Bipolar cells
receive input from rods and cones and start a neve impulse
→ Ganglion cells
activated by bipolar cells
axons of many ganglion cells align to form the optic nerve
Blind spot
where optic nerve leaves the eye
no receptors here due to blood vessels
ORDER OF TRAVEL
- Light:
- cornea, pupil, lens, retina, rods, or cone
- Nerve impulse:
- bipolar cells, ganglion cells, optic nerve, optic chiasm, thalamus, visual cortex of occipital lobe
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (3 color) theory❤️💚💙
retina contains 3 diff types of color receptors (cones) sensitive to red, blue, and green light (diff wavelengths)
RGB
Color Blindness
lacking some/all of color sensitive cones
Dichromatic: only 2 colors work and mix
Opponent-process theory
opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision
colors are separated and dont mix
prevents certain color combinations
Feature detectors
nerve cells in visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus (shape, angle, movement)
use parallel processing to analyze multiple aspects simultaneously
Audition
the sense or act of hearing
communication, info, survive + adapt
sound neural response speed > visual neural response speed
20 Hz - 20,000 Hz
Frequency
# of completed waves that pass point in given time
measured in Hertz (Hz)
Pitch
tone’s experienced highness/lowness
depends on frequency
Loudness
determined by amplitude of soundwave
measured in Decibels
over 85 dB = BAD
Path of a sound wave
Auditory canal → eardrum → malleus → incus → stapes → oval window → cochlea
Middle ear
chamber between eardrum and cochlea
contains 3 tiny bones that concentrate vibrations of eardrum on cochlea’s oval window
Malleus (hammer)
incus (anvil)
stapes (stirrup)
Inner ear
innermost part of ear
contains cochlea, semicircular canals, vestibular sac
Cochlea
coiled boney, fluid-filled tube in inner ear
vibrations → oval window → cochlea fluid moves → bends tiny hair cells → trigger nerve impulse → auditory nerve
HEARING LOSS
Sensorineural hearing loss “nerve deafness”
hearing loss caused by nerve damage to cochlea receptor cells or auditory nerve
most common, happens overtime gradually
Conduction hearing loss
caused by physical damage to mechanical system that conducts sound waves to cochlea
may be genetic
Cochlear implant
device for converting sounds to electrical signals
stimulates auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into cochlea
learn how to hear
SOUND THEORY
Place theory
pitch is linked with place where cochlea membrane is stimulated (place coding)
place coding
Frequency matching theory
rate of nerve impulses matches frequency of tone, thus enabling us to sense pitch (temporal coding)
TOUCH
4 basic touch senses
pressure
warmth
cold
pain
Pain perception
[biologically] input for pain includes many factors
Nociceptors: specialized receptor cells that detect harmful temp, pressure, or chemicals
genetically, some people produce more endorphins (painkilling neurotransmitters)
less affected by pain
Gate Control Theory
spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to brain
inhibitory neurons
gate opened by pain signals
Psychological perception
Motivation/distraction can influence how much pain we feel
ex. adrenaline as athlete
pain is often diminished/distorted in memories
Social-cultural perception
experience with pain can vary in social situations and be influenced by cultural norms
suppress pain
TASTE
Gustation
our sense of taste, derived from taste buds on our tongue
5 Basic Tastes
sweet - energy source
salty - sodium for processes
sour - toxic acids
umami - grow/repair tissue
bitter - poison
Biological factor
# of taste buds (supertaster)
Psychological factor
expectations, hunger, framing
Culture
tolerance of spice
SMELL
Olfaction: our sense of smell
chemical detection of air-born molecules by receptor cells in upper nasal cavity (20 million)
Anosmia
inability to smell (can be dangerous)
Strong connection between memory and smell (can trigger emotions and memories)
olfaction neurons bypass thalamus and directly connect to olfactory bulb
Ability to smell = affected by:
genetics
age
gender
experience
OTHER SENSES
Kinesthetics [from muscles]
sense of position and movement of individual body parts
Proprioceptors: located in muscles, joints, and tendons
Vestibular sense [from ear]
sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance
Semicircular canals + vestibular sacs in inner ear send info to cerebellum
Sensory interaction
senses work TOGETHER
one sense can influence another
ex. vision + balance, taste +vision
Embodied cognition
influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements
how we think about a situation may be influence by how we are feeling now
ex. sick → feel more angry at person