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Strong economic focus in political ideologies.
Ideological battle lines between capitalism and socialism heightened by the 1917 Russian Revolution, which created the world’s first socialist state.
The ‘short’ twentieth century is defined from the outbreak of World War I to the fall of communism (1989-1991).
International politics during the Cold War (1945-1990) was marked by the confrontation between the capitalist West and the communist East.
Post-1960s ideological debates became richer and more diverse due to the emergence of new ideologies (e.g., feminism, green politics) along with traditional ideologies that adapted to remain relevant.

Liberalism must be the starting point in any discussion of political ideologies as it represents the ideology of the industrialized West.
Sometimes viewed as a meta-ideology capable of encompassing a broad range of beliefs.
Developed into a political creed during the early nineteenth century, building upon 300 years of earlier theories.
Early liberalism reflected the aspirations of a rising industrial middle class and established a close link with capitalism.

Emerged as a political doctrine challenging absolutism and feudal privilege, advocating for constitutional and representative government.
The development of classical economic liberalism emphasized laissez-faire economics and condemned government intervention.

Emerged later, favoring welfare reforms and economic intervention which became a feature of modern liberalism since the late nineteenth century.

Meta-ideology: A higher or second-order ideology that provides the foundation for ideological debates.
Individualism: The principle that emphasizes the importance of the individual over social groups, positing that every person is of equal moral worth and has unique identities.
Freedom/Liberty: Core value prioritizing individual freedom while stressing that it must be balanced against the freedom of others (i.e., freedom under law).
Reason: Liberals trust in rationality, believing individuals are capable of making wise decisions, thus favoring progress through discourse.
Equality: Commitment to foundational equality without endorsing social equality; meritocracy is favored, indicating rewards based on ability and effort.
Toleration: Advocates for forbearance, promoting a pluralistic society where diverse beliefs are accepted, enriching social discourse.
Consent: Authority must derive from the consent of the governed, supporting democratic representations and social contracts.
Constitutionalism: Advocates limited government with checks and balances, recognizing the potential tyranny of unchecked government power.

Characterized by extreme individualism and negative liberty (freedom from interference).
Embraces an atomistic view of society where individuals own their capacities and owe little to others.
Advocates for a minimal or ‘nightwatchman’ state focused on protecting citizens and enforcing contracts.
Supports laissez-faire capitalism as a method to guarantee prosperity and social justice.

Displays a supportive attitude towards state intervention born from recognizing the injustices of industrial capitalism.
Influenced by thinkers like J. S. Mill, the modern interpretation links freedom to personal development, not merely lack of interference.
Identifies social evils (as per the Beveridge Report) and embraces welfare provisions to help those unable to care for themselves.
Acknowledges J. M. Keynes' ideas, endorsing managed capitalism to maintain growth and social responsibility.
Focuses on the support for the weak and vulnerable, emphasizing the goal of enabling individuals to eventually take responsibility for themselves.
John Rawls' theories attempted to reconcile welfare principles with liberalism.

Progress: The belief in human advancement over time based on knowledge accumulation.
Meritocracy: Governance by talent, where positions are filled based on ability.
Atomism: Society seen as composed of self-sufficient individuals with minimal social obligations.
Economic Liberalism: Belief in self-regulating markets leading to widespread prosperity.
Big Government: A state characterized by active intervention in economy and social policy.

Emerged in response to the rapid changes brought about by liberalism, nationalism, and the French Revolution.
Historically focused on preserving traditional social orders under increasing pressure.
Divisions exist within conservatism, with distinct forms in Europe and America.

Advocates for gradual change to conserve traditional values and social order.
Embraces social reform through a paternalistic approach, promoting social responsibility among the privileged classes.

A reactionary movement emphasizing anti-statism, drawing from classical liberal principles.

Argues for social responsibility among the elite; Disraeli warned of division leading to social revolution and advocated for reform from the privileged.
Associated with the One-Nation principle, emphasizing social cohesion over equality.

Redistribution: Efforts to narrow material inequalities via taxation and welfare.
Ancien Régime: Refers to the old political order before the French Revolution.
Paternalism: Policies reflecting care for the less fortunate; often compared to the relationship between a parent and child.
Noblesse Oblige: Responsibility of the privileged to aid the less fortunate, linking privilege with duty.
Toryism: A conservative ideology focusing on tradition, hierarchy, and organic social structures.
Natural Aristocracy: The belief that leadership qualities are inherent and not acquired through effort.