Unit 8

Chapter 10: The First World War, Russian Revolution, and U.S.S.R. Until 1939

Overview of the First World War

  • The First World War marked the height of European power, transitioning to decline post-war.

  • Major empires fell: Russian, Austro-Hungarian, German, and Ottoman. Britain and France, though still standing, saw their economies devastated.

  • A significant loss of life occurred, particularly among a generation of young men, due to new warfare technologies and tactics.

  • Characterized as the first total war, the conflict involved mass civilian mobilization, affected economies, and included propaganda efforts.

  • The war catalyzed the rise of nationalism, communism in Russia, fascism in Italy, and Nazism in Germany.

  • The United States emerged as the leading creditor post-war, setting the stage for future global conflicts.

  • Unresolved peace issues contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War.

The Russian Context Before the War

  • Czarist Russia was in a period of decline, with prior defeats (Crimea 1856, Russo-Japanese War 1905) prompting reforms like the Duma.

  • The Russian Revolution in 1917 began as a middle-class reform movement, evolving into a Bolshevik takeover.

  • Key events leading to the revolution included widespread dissatisfaction and radical Marxist ideology.

Events Leading to the First World War

  • The four MAIN causes of war detailed as: Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism.

  • Spark of the war: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914, by Serbian nationalists.

  • Austria-Hungary, with German backing (the "blank check" policy), declared war on Serbia, leading to a chain reaction of mobilizations and declarations of war among major powers.

  • Major dates highlight the escalation:
      - July 23, 1914: Austria's ultimatum to Serbia.
      - July 28, 1914: Austria declares war on Serbia.
      - August 1, 1914: Germany declares war on Russia.
      - August 3, 1914: France declares war on Germany.
      - August 4, 1914: Britain declares war on Germany following the invasion of Belgium.

The Combatants

  • The Allies: Britain, France, Russia (until 1917), Italy (from 1915), and the United States (from 1917).

  • Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.

The Western Front

  • Germany's Schlieffen Plan: Invade France through Belgium to defeat it quickly, then move to the Eastern Front.
      - Objectives included defeating France in six weeks and holding off Russia.
      - Failure Reasons:
        - Belgian resistance surprised the Germans.
        - Russian mobilization occurred faster than anticipated, requiring German forces to divert.
        - French counter-offensive at the Battle of the Marne in September 1914 halted German advance.

  • Resulted in trench warfare, resulting in stalemates and significant casualties without substantial territorial gains.

  • Key Battles:
      - Battle of the Somme: Over 1,200,000 casualties, minimal territory gained.
      - Battle of Verdun: 700,000 casualties.

The Eastern Front

  • German advances were initially successful against Russia until significant defeats from 1915 onward.

  • The Eastern Front remained more mobile compared to the stagnant Western Front.

  • Russia faced technological disadvantages, leading to high casualties and food shortages, which fueled the revolution.

  • The Gallipoli Campaign aimed to knock the Ottoman Empire out but ended in failure for the Allies.

Waging the War

  • Total war affected civilian life significantly。
      - Propaganda was used extensively; economic measures included rationing and women entering the workforce.
      - Naval blockades were employed by Britain; Germany utilized unrestricted submarine warfare.
      - The sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 morphed U.S. public opinion against Germany.

  • The war expanded into various theaters, including the involvement of colonial soldiers.

The End of the War

  • U.S. troops began arriving in Europe in large numbers by summer 1918, aiding Allies against German offensives.

  • By fall 1918, Central powers began to sue for peace, Germany suffered internal revolutions, leading to the Kaiser’s abdication.

  • Armistice signed on November 11, 1918.

  • Aftermath: More people died from the Spanish Flu than in combat during the war.

Peace Settlements and the Treaty of Versailles

  • President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points included proposals such as:
      1. End to secret treaties
      2. Freedom of the seas
      3. Free trade
      4. Arms reduction
      5. Territorial evacuations and national self-determination
      6. Establishment of a League of Nations

  • The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including:
      1. Territorial concessions to Allies
      2. Demilitarization of the Rhineland
      3. Limitation of the German military
      4. Reparations totaling $33 billion (over $500 billion in today’s money)

  • The League of Nations was weak and the U.S. never joined, limiting its effectiveness.

The Russian Revolution (1917)

  • Key figures included:
      - Czar Nicholas II: His abdication in March 1917 ushered in the provisional government.
      - Alexander Kerensky: Head of the provisional government that continued the war.
      - Leon Trotsky: Led the Bolsheviks to power and established the Red Army.
      - Vladimir Lenin: Promised "peace, land, and bread," which won support and led to the October Revolution.

  • The Bolsheviks seized power, established a communist regime, and withdrew Russia from WWI via the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, ceding large territories.

  • The ensuing Civil War (1918-1922) resulted in the establishment of the Soviet Union (U.S.S.R.) and the abolition of the Duma.

Stalin's Rule and Economic Policies

  • Lenin's New Economic Policy allowed limited market freedom to rebuild post-war economy.

  • The first Five-Year Plan aimed at rapid industrialization and collectivization of agriculture, leading to widespread famine and suffering.

  • Purge Trials in 1936-1937 led to the execution of millions, further solidifying Stalin's totalitarian regime.

Conclusion and Long-term Implications

  • The aftermath of the war and revolution established the groundwork for future global conflicts, as dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles and the emergence of the Soviet Union reshaped international politics.

  • Notable consequences included the rise of totalitarian regimes, further militarization, and ethnic tensions that persisted across Europe and into the Middle East thereafter.

Key Figures and Thematic Events

  • Names, dates, and events significant to the historical narrative.
      - Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Czar Nicholas II, Lenin, Trotsky, Wilson, and many others shaped geopolitics during this tumultuous period.

Important Terms

  • Marxism: The political and economic theories of Karl Marx, which informed Bolshevik ideology.

  • Proletariat: Working-class individuals who were central to Bolshevik thought.

  • Dictatorship of the Proletariat: Concept involving the state's governance by the working class, envisioned by Marx and Lenin.

  • Total War: A conflict where countries mobilize all resources, affecting civilian and military sectors alike.

Chapter 11: Democracy, Depression, Dictatorship, World War and Its Aftermath (1919-1945)

Key Themes

  • Isolationism and the Great Depression
      - Age of Anxiety: Exploration of psychological and cultural impacts post-World War I.
      - Tariff Policies: Imposition of tariffs that burdened international trade, contributing to global economic decline.
      - Keynesianism: Economic theory advocating for government intervention to mitigate economic downturns.
      - Surrealism: Art movement reflecting disillusionment and the chaotic state of society.

Major Events and Influences

  • The Great Depression (1929-1939): Economic collapse that intensified political instability across nations.
      - Resulted from a mix of factors such as
        - Stock market crash of 1929
        - Wartime economic changes
        - Overproduction and reliance on credit.

  • Rise of Totalitarianism: Established following economic instability and social unrest, leading to
        - Authoritarian regimes in Russia (Stalin), Italy (Mussolini), Germany (Hitler), and Spain.
        - Individuals subordinated to state needs.

Socio-Political Structures

  • Weimar Republic: Established in Germany post-WWI, faced immense challenges from radical elements and economic crisis.

  • Fascism: An authoritarian and nationalistic regime, characterized by:
      - One-party rule
      - Total control over political and economic life
      - Private ownership linked with state control.

Important Ideologies and Definitions

  • Key Terms:
      - Weimar Constitution: The democratic foundation of the Weimar Republic.
      - National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazis): A radical political party led by Hitler that promoted extreme nationalism.
      - Mein Kampf: Hitler's autobiography outlining Nazi ideology including the superiority of the Aryan race.
      - Nuremberg Laws: Measures that institutionalized racial discrimination against Jews in Germany.
      - Holocaust: Genocide of Jews and others during WWII.
      - League of Nations: An international organization aimed at maintaining peace, weakened by the absence of major powers.

Key Figures

  • Adolf Hitler: Dictator of Nazi Germany, orchestrated WWII and the Holocaust.

  • Benito Mussolini: Italian dictator, creator of Fascism.

  • Joseph Stalin: Soviet leader who propagated communism through totalitarian rule.

  • Virginia Woolf, Franz Kafka, James Joyce: Influential authors reflecting existential dilemmas in post-war literature.

Military Conflict and Warfare (WWII)

  • World War II (1939-1945): A global conflict fueled by unresolved issues from WWI and the aggressive policies of totalitarian regimes.
      - Officially began with the invasion of Poland by Germany in September 1939.
      - Blitzkrieg: German tactical strategy involving rapid and coordinated attacks using air and ground forces.
      - Axis Powers: A coalition primarily consisting of Germany, Italy, and Japan.

Human Costs of War

  • Casualties: Approximately 70 million people lost their lives, with civilians bearing a significant portion of fatalities due to bombings and genocides.
      - The Holocaust resulted in the systematic murder of over 6 million Jews.

  • Destruction of Cities: Widespread devastation across Europe, leading to long-term economic and social repercussions.

Cultural Responses

  • The Lost Generation: A term used to describe writers and thinkers disillusioned by the war.

  • Surrealism and Modernism: Artistic movements that challenged traditional representations and explored subjective experiences.
      - Stream of Consciousness: A narrative mode employed by authors such as James Joyce and Virginia Woolf, depicting the thought processes of characters.

Post-War Implications

  • Cold War: Emerging tensions between the US and USSR, establishing a divided Europe characterized by ideological conflict.

  • Marshall Plan: An initiative by the US to provide economic assistance to Western European countries devastated by the war, promoting recovery and containment of communism.

Ethical and Philosophical Considerations

  • Moral Implications: Discussion on the brutality of wartime actions including the Holocaust and the justification of governments for oppressive actions.

  • Philosophical Movements: Post-war existentialism and skepticism towards progress, science, and the notion of objective truth.