The Road to Dominican Independence and the Haitian Occupation

The Reconquista and the End of French Rule (1808-1809)

The period known as the Reconquista was sparked by a profound sense of discontent among the inhabitants of Santo Domingo against French colonial rule. This rebellion was driven by several convergent factors: a severe economic crisis that affected the majority of the population, a deeply rooted identity tied to Hispanic cultural roots, and the restrictive prohibition of trade with Haiti. Furthermore, a strong anti-French sentiment was fueled by Napoleon Bonaparte's invasion of Spain in $1808$. When Napoleon declared himself Emperor and installed his brother, Jose I, as the King of Spain, the American colonies began forming their own local governments. Initially, these entities governed in the name of the deposed King Ferdinand VII, but over time, they developed a resolute desire for complete independence from the Spanish Crown.

The military struggle for the Reconquista was notably marked by the Battle of Palo Hincado, which took place on November $7$, $1808$. During this engagement, led by the criollo leader Juan S
anchez Ram
irez, local troops successfully defeated the French General Ferrand in the El Seibo region. This victory was a turning point, significantly boosting the morale of the colonists and demonstrating their capacity for self-defense. The war officially concluded on July $11$, $1809$, when the French forces surrendered. This victory was made possible through the support of Spanish soldiers arriving from Puerto Rico, the provision of Haitian weaponry, and a maritime blockade maintained by the British. Upon the French exit, Juan S
anchez Ram
irez assumed colonial command in the name of Spain. However, the victory left the island in a state of extreme economic fragility due to the immense costs of the war and a lack of financial support from the Spanish metropole.

The Period of La Espa
na Boba (1809-1821)

The years between $1809$ and $1821$ are historically categorized as "La Espa
na Boba" (Foolish Spain). This era was defined by a profound economic crisis, total administrative abandonment by Spain toward the colony, and a lack of effective territorial control. This climate of neglect fostered widespread dissatisfaction and the germination of pro-independence ideologies. Within the population, different political inclinations emerged. One group, led by Juan S
anchez Ram
irez, advocated for the colony to remain under the dominion of Spain through the "Junta de Bondillo." Conversely, merchants in the southern region, led by Ciriaco Ram
irez, leaned toward national independence. Ultimately, the predominant sectors opted for the southern merchants' second choice and recognized S
anchez Ram
irez as the governor of Santo Domingo.

Economic management during this period was disastrous. The governors issued paper money that devalued with extreme rapidity. Other measures included the suppression of copper coinage and the confiscation of lands. In an attempt to mitigate public unrest, Governor Carlos Urrutia promoted agricultural development, which earned him the popular nickname "Carlos Conuco." Despite these efforts, the period was rife with revolutionary conspiracies, including the Conspiraci
on de Manuel del Monte, the Conspiraci
on de Don Ferm
in ($1810$), the Conspiraci
on de los Italianos ($1810$), and the Conspiraci
on de Mendoza y Mojarra ($1812$).

The Path to the Ephemeral Independence (1821)

By $1821$, the crisis in Spain and various emancipation movements across the Americas accelerated the path toward independence in Santo Domingo. Simultaneously, Haitian President Jean-Pierre Boyer planned to seize the eastern part of the island to unify it under one government. His stated goal was to prevent foreign powers, specifically France, from using the eastern territory as a base of attack against Haiti. By late $1821$, the local population was divided into two primary camps: the pro-Haitian group, composed largely of Black and Mulatto individuals who favored union with Haiti, and a group of high-ranking officials and military personnel led by Jos
e N
u
nez de C
aceres, who sought independence from Spain to join the Gran Colombia confederation.

On November $30$, $1821$, N
u
nez de C
aceres and his troops assaulted the fortress and imprisoned the Royal Governor. On December $1$, $1821$, they officially proclaimed the "Estado Independiente del Hait
i Espa
nol" (Independent State of Spanish Haiti). A Constitutive Act was drafted for the new nation, and N
u
nez de C
aceres dispatched Antonio Mar
ia Pineda to Venezuela to communicate with Sim
on Bol
ivar. The objective was to have the new territory welcomed into Gran Colombia. However, Bol
ivar was preoccupied with his own military campaigns, and the Dominican offer failed to gain momentum, leaving the new state vulnerable.

The Haitian Occupation (1822)

The newly declared state under N
u
nez de C
aceres was born inherently weak, lacking both external support from Gran Colombia and internal military strength. Seeing this vulnerability, President Jean-Pierre Boyer marched toward Santo Domingo. In February $1822$, the city council members and N
u
nez de C
aceres himself were forced to hand over the keys to the city to Boyer. This marked the beginning of a Haitian military occupation that would last for $22$ years.

Boyer implemented several transformative and controversial measures. He immediately decreed the abolition of slavery. To consolidate cultural and administrative control, he prohibited the use of the Spanish language in official documents and imposed French as the medium of instruction in primary schools. He also mandated military enlistment for all young men between the ages of $16$ and $25$ years. Administratively, the island was divided into six distinct departments, and a policy of confiscating real estate and immovable property was enforced against those who fled or opposed the regime.

Opposition to the Haitian Government and the Rise of La Trinitaria

Between $1830$ and $1840$, the Haitian government suffered a severe economic crisis. While many Haitian politicians called for internal reforms, President Boyer responded with increased political persecution. In the eastern part of the island, opposition grew due to deteriorating social and economic conditions, leading to a failed assassination attempt against Boyer in $1838$. On July $16$, $1838$, Juan Pablo Duarte and other young patriots founded a secret society called "La Trinitaria." The primary objectives of this society were to organize resistance against the Haitian government and to create a completely independent nation.

To evade persecution by the Haitian authorities, Duarte created front organizations to spread nationalist fervor. These included "La Filantr
opica," a cultural society used to disseminate patriotic ideas, and "La Dram
atica," a theatrical group that staged plays containing hidden nationalist messages. Aside from the Trinitarios, other political factions existed with varying goals: the Pro-Spanish group sought a return to Spanish rule; the Pro-English group, led by the landowner Pimentel, sought British protection; and the "Afrancesados," led by Buenaventura B
aez and Manuel Joaqu
in Delmonte, advocated for French assistance to expel the Haitian forces.