AP Language and Composition Rhetorical Terms and Concepts Study Guide

Rhetorical Fallacies and Errors in Reasoning

  • Ad Hominem

    • Definition: Arguments that limit themselves not to the issues, but to the opposition itself. Writers who fall into this fallacy attempt to refute the claims of the opposition by bringing the opposition's character into question. These arguments ignore the issues and attack the people.

    • Example: "Candidate A claims that Candidate B cannot possibly be an advocate for the working people because he enjoys the opera more than professional wrestling." (In reality, Candidate B's personal entertainment preferences have little to nothing to do with his stance on labor laws.)

  • Ad Populum (Bandwagon)

    • Definition: An argument that tries to get everyone to agree the same way. Writers using this approach try to convince the reader that everyone else believes in something, so the reader should as well.

    • Example: "Fifty million Elvis fans can't be wrong!" (The merit of Elvis is not related to how many people do or do not like his music.)

  • Begging the Question (Circular Logic)

    • Definition: Occurs when the writer presents an arguable point as a fact that supports the argument. This error leads to an argument that goes around in circles, with evidence making the same claim as the proposition. It occurs because making a claim is much easier than supporting it.

    • Example: "These are popular because they make so much money. They make a lot of money because people like them. People like them because they are popular." (The support assumes the claim is true rather than proving its truth.)

  • Equivocation

    • Definition: Occurs when a writer makes use of a word's multiple meanings and shifts the meaning in the middle of the argument without informing the audience. Writers often use vague or ambiguous words when they themselves are unsure of the meaning. A valid argument requires sticking with one consistent meaning throughout, or explicitly informing the audience if a definition shift is necessary.

    • Example: When representing himself in court, a defendant said, "I have told the truth, and I have always heard that the truth would set me free." (The arguer switches the meaning of "truth" from an accurate representation of events in the first instance to a Biblical religious absolute in the second instance, failing to support his legal claim.)

  • False Authority

    • Definition: A tactic used by writers, especially in advertising, where authority in one field is falsely applied to an unrelated field. Being knowledgeable in one area does not constitute knowledge or qualifications in all areas.

    • Example: A popular sports figure may know plenty about football, but very little about shaving cream. His expertise on the playing field does not qualify him to intelligently discuss the benefits of aloe, yet advertising companies seek him for product endorsements.

  • False Dilemma (Either/Or Fallacy)

    • Definition: Arguments that reduce complex issues with multiple possible solutions to rigid, binary choices. This fallacy ignores other valid alternatives beyond the two presented, creating an artificial problem that does not actually exist.

    • Example: "Either we go to Panama City for the whole week of Easter break, or we don't go anywhere at all." (Ignores options such as spending part of the week in Panama City or spending the whole week somewhere else.)

  • Faulty Analogies

    • Definition: An extended comparison or metaphor that attempts to relate two ideas or situations that, upon closer inspection, are not similar enough to warrant the comparison. While analogies offer support and insight, they cannot prove anything, and faulty analogies lead to invalid conclusions.

    • Example: "Forcing students to attend cultural events is like herding cattle to slaughter. (The students stampede into the event where they are systematically 'put to sleep' by the program.)" (The difference between attending cultural events and slaughtering cattle is so vast that the comparison becomes a fallacy.)

  • Hasty Generalizations

    • Definition: An argument based on insufficient, limited, or unrepresentative evidence. Writers draw conclusions too quickly instead of examining the complete issue, often looking at a small subgroup or a minor fragment of the issue as representative of the whole.

    • Example: Concluding that all fraternities are party houses because you have seen three parties at one fraternity is a hasty generalization.

  • Ignoring the Question

    • Definition: A fallacy similar to a red herring wherein a writer dodges the issue of debate by shifting focus away from the question asked and supplying an unrelated argument.

    • Example: During a press conference, a political candidate is asked a pointed, specific question about potentially illegal fundraising activity. Instead of answering the allegations, the candidate gives a speech thanking all of his financial supporters.

  • Logical Fallacy

    • Definition: A mistake in verbal reasoning. To technically qualify as a fallacy, the reasoning must be potentially deceptive and likely to fool people. Categories include ad hominem, bandwagon, begging the question, circular reasoning, hasty generalization, non sequitur argument, post hoc argument, slippery slope, straw man, and tu quoque.

  • Non Sequitur

    • Definition: An inference or conclusion that does not logically follow from the premise or explanation provided. Non sequiturs can occur on the sentence level or within the structure of an overall argument.

    • Example: "The rain came down so hard that Jennifer actually called me." (The force of rain has no logical connection to Jennifer's decision to make a phone call.)

  • Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc (False Cause)

    • Definition: Latin for "after this, therefore, also this" (shortened as post hoc). This argument assumes a causal relationship merely because one event follows another in time. Time sequence alone does not prove causation.

    • Example: "Eating five candy bars and drinking two sodas before a test helps me get better grades. I did that and got an 'A' on my last exam." (Ignores actual variables like preparation time and exam difficulty.)

  • Red Herring

    • Definition: An argument that introduces an irrelevant topic to divert attention away from the original issue. Desperate arguers change the subject to ground that may be loosely related, but does nothing to resolve the main conflict.

    • Example: "Winthrop should pave the lot behind Dinkins. Besides, I can never find a parking space on campus anyway." (Shifts the argument from paving a specific lot to general parking scarcity.)

  • Slippery Slope

    • Definition: An argument suggesting that taking a single initial step will inevitably set off a chain reaction leading to extreme, usually negative, consequences. It relies on speculation rather than solid evidence of inevitability.

    • Example: "If we force public elementary school students to wear uniforms, eventually, we will require middle school students to wear uniforms. If we require middle school students to wear uniforms, high school requirements are not far off. Eventually, even college students who attend state-funded, public universities will be forced to wear uniforms."

  • Straw Man Argument

    • Definition: A tactic where a writer oversimplifies, misrepresents, or selects the weakest aspect of an opposing argument to refute it easily, diverting attention from the core issue and avoiding genuine resolution.

    • Example: "The debate over drink machines centers around cost and choice. Opponents of the new drink machines bring up their locations as an important issue. This insignificant point has little relevance to the actual issues."

  • Tu Quoque

    • Definition: Latin for "you're another." A fallacy that avoids addressing the main argument by throwing similar charges back at the opponent (e.g., claiming "two wrongs make a right").

    • Example: "How can the police ticket me for speeding? I see cops speeding all the time."

Rhetorical Appeals, Core Concepts, and Analytical Frameworks

  • Ethos

    • Definition: An appeal to the credibility, moral character, and ethical standing of the speaker, writer, or narrator. It is one of Aristotle's three primary rhetorical appeals.

  • Logos

    • Definition: An appeal to logic, evidence, and rational reasoning. It is one of Aristotle's three primary rhetorical appeals.

  • Pathos

    • Definition: An element in persuasive writing or speech that appeals to the reader's emotions, frequently seeking to evoke pity, sympathy, or sorrow. It is one of Aristotle's three primary rhetorical appeals.

  • Rhetoric

    • Definition: The study of effective, persuasive, and eloquent language use. Defined by Aristotle as the art of identifying and using the "available means of persuasion" in any given situation.

  • Rhetorical Triangle (Aristotelian Triangle)

    • Definition: A conceptual diagram representing a rhetorical situation as an interconnected relationship among three elements: the Speaker, the Subject, and the Audience.

  • Rhetorical Strategies

    • Definition: A broad, comprehensive term encompassing all the methods and choices a writer employs to achieve an intended goal. It consists of three primary components:

      • Structure: The organizational framework and arrangement of the piece.

      • Purpose: The goal or reason behind writing the text.

      • Style: The artistic choices made by the author, including diction, syntax, figurative language, tone, attitude, and rhetorical modes.

  • Attitude

    • Definition: The specific relationship or stance an author maintains toward their subject, their audience, or both.

  • Atmosphere

    • Definition: The overall emotional mood created by a literary work, established through setting, descriptive choices, and environmental details (such as weather). Atmosphere often foreshadows narrative developments and sets the mood.

  • Tone

    • Definition: The author's expressed attitude toward their material, audience, or both. Identifying tone can be facilitated by considering how a text would sound if spoken aloud.

  • Undertone

    • Definition: An underlying or subtle attitude that exists beneath the main, explicit surface tone of a text. For instance, a cheerful surface description may contain threatening or somber undertones.

  • Voice

    • Grammatical Definition: The structural relationship between a verb and its subject (e.g., active voice vs. passive voice).

    • Rhetorical Definition: The distinctive quality, perspective, and personal style of the speaker or narrator, resulting from the synthesis of diction, syntax, tone, and perspective.

  • Persona

    • Definition: The fictional facade, adopted role, or public character assumed by a speaker or writer when addressing an audience.

  • Style

    • Definition: The characteristic manner in which an author combines words, shapes ideas, structures sentences, and utilizes syntax. Style represents a writer's unique signature across texts.

  • Theme

    • Definition: The central idea, primary message, or underlying insight about life conveyed through a literary or rhetorical work.

  • Thesis

    • Definition: The main idea, overarching proposition, or central argument that a speaker or writer intends to prove, defend, or illustrate.

  • Thesis Statement

    • Definition: A specific statement, usually located near the beginning of a text or introductory paragraph, that explicitly states the main argument and organizes the supporting structure of the work.

Literary, Figurative, and Tropological Devices

  • Allegory

    • Definition: The symbolic use of characters or narrative elements to represent abstract ideas in addition to their literal meanings. Characters in an allegory frequently personify abstract concepts like hope, freedom, or greed, typically conveying a moral truth or broad generalization about human nature.

    • Example: The novel Animal Farm by George Orwell, in which characters figuratively represent real historical figures and political movements of the Russian Revolution.

  • Allusion

    • Definition: A direct or indirect reference to a well-known person, place, event, literary work, myth, religious text, historical moment, or natural phenomenon.

    • Example: "My father's favorite saying is, 'Plan ahead… it wasn't raining when Noah built the ark.'"

  • Ambiguity

    • Definition: The presence of multiple possible meanings within a single word, phrase, sentence, or passage, whether created intentionally or unintentionally.

  • Analogy

    • Definition: A explicit comparison between two distinct items or concepts based on a shared relationship or similarity. Analogies clarify unfamiliar ideas by pairing them with familiar ones, adding clarity, visual imagery, and intellectual engagement to writing.

    • Example: "He that voluntarily continues ignorance is guilty of all the crimes which ignorance produces, as to him that should extinguish the tapers of a lighthouse might justly be imputed the calamities of shipwrecks." — Samuel Johnson

  • Aphorism

    • Definition: A concise, memorable statement of known authorship that states a general truth or moral principle. (If authorship is unknown, it is classified as a folk proverb.)

    • Example 1: "Life's tragedy is that we get old too soon and wise too late." — Benjamin Franklin

    • Example 2: "Yesterday is but today's memory, and tomorrow is today's dream." — Khalil Gibran

  • Apostrophe

    • Definition: A figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses an absent person, an imaginary figure, or a personified abstract idea. It acts as an address to an entity that cannot respond, serving to release or display intense emotional power.

    • Example: "Oh Zeus! What plaything have you made of me!" — Oedipus Rex

  • Euphemism / Euphony

    • Definition: Euphemism is the substitution of a mild, indirect, or less offensive expression for a harsh, painful, or unpleasant concept. It can be used to maintain social standards, provide humor, or create ironic understatement. Euphony refers to pleasing, harmonious arrangement of sounds.

  • Extended Metaphor

    • Definition: A metaphoric comparison developed at length, sustained over a substantial section of text or throughout an entire work.

  • Figurative Language

    • Definition: Speech or writing not intended to carry literal meaning, designed to invoke imaginative associations and vivid connections.

  • Figure of Speech

    • Definition: A literary device or syntactic pattern used to create figurative language, often contrasting dissimilar things.

  • Hyperbole

    • Definition: Deliberate exaggeration or overstatement used for dramatic, comedic, or ironic effect.

    • Example 1: "Your suitcase weighs a ton!"

    • Example 2: "If I don't clean my room soon, my mother is going to kill me."

  • Imagery

    • Definition: Sensory details and figurative description used to evoke physical sensations (related to sight, sound, touch, taste, smell) or represent abstract concepts.

  • Invective

    • Definition: Emotionally violent, abusive, or harsh verbal denunciations using strong language to attack an opponent or idea.

  • Irony

    • Definition: The contrast between explicit statement and true meaning, or between outward appearance and underlying reality. Used to generate humor, emphasis, or emotional resonance. Includes three main types:

      • Verbal Irony: Words express the literal opposite of the speaker's true intent.

      • Situational Irony: Reality diverges completely from expected outcomes.

      • Dramatic Irony: Facts or events are understood by the audience or reader but remain unknown to the characters involved.

  • Lampoon

    • Definition: A sharp, mocking, satirical attack targeting a specific person, group, or situation.

  • Litotes

    • Definition: A form of understatement in which an affirmative statement is expressed by negating its opposite, using ironic contrast to emphasize the underlying point.

    • Example 1: "The homework assignment was not unreasonable."

    • Example 2: "The speeding ticket certainly won't do your driving record any good."

  • Malapropism

    • Definition: The unintentional, humorous misuse of a word caused by confusing it with a similar-sounding word with an inappropriate meaning.

    • Example: "Cinderella wore an exquisitely eloquent dress to the ball." (Where "eloquent" is mistakenly substituted for "elegant.")

  • Metaphor

    • Definition: A figure of speech that makes an implicit comparison between two distinct, seemingly unlike things without using comparison words such as "like" or "as."

    • Example 1: "After navigating a sea of paperwork, the Wilsons finally submitted their mortgage application."

    • Example 2: "Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player / That struts and frets his hour upon the stage, / And then is heard no more." — William Shakespeare, Macbeth

  • Metonymy

    • Definition: A figure of speech in which the name of one subject is substituted for another entity with which it is closely associated.

    • Example: "After the earthquake in Haiti, the White House released a comment that the United States was prepared to send millions of dollars in aid." (Where "the White House" represents the executive branch or President of the United States.)

  • Onomatopoeia

    • Definition: Words whose pronunciations imitate or echo natural sounds.

    • Examples: "buzz," "hiss," "hum," "crash," "bang"

  • Oxymoron

    • Definition: A figure of speech in which contradictory terms are placed side-by-side to reveal a paradoxical truth.

  • Paradox

    • Definition: A statement that appears self-contradictory or opposed to common sense upon first reading, but reveals an underlying truth upon deeper analysis.

    • Example: "I can resist anything but temptation." — Oscar Wilde

  • Parody

    • Definition: A work that closely imitates the style, content, or tone of another work for comedic effect, commentary, or ridicule. Requires audience familiarity with the original work.

  • Personification

    • Definition: A figure of speech endowing animals, abstract ideas, or inanimate objects with human characteristics, capabilities, or emotions to heighten visual vividness.

  • Pun

    • Definition: A humorous play on words utilizing multiple meanings of a word or similar-sounding words with different meanings.

  • Sarcasm

    • Definition: Caustic, bitter language intended to mock, hurt, or ridicule. Frequently employs irony, though not all ironic statements are sarcastic.

  • Satire

    • Definition: A literary or rhetorical style targeting human vices, follies, or societal institutions for reform or ridicule through irony, wit, parody, understatement, and sarcasm.

  • Simile

    • Definition: An explicit, direct comparison between two distinct things using explicit connective words such as "like" or "as."

    • Example: "There was a steamy mist in all the hollows, and it had roared in its forlornness up the hill like an evil spirit." — Charles Dickens

  • Symbol / Symbolism

    • Definition: The use of a concrete object, person, place, or action to represent an abstract idea or concept.

  • Synecdoche

    • Definition: A specialized form of metaphor where a part represents the whole, the whole represents a part, a material represents the object made from it, or a specific category represents a general class.

    • Example 1: "The farmer had two hundred head of cattle and three hired hands." (Where "hands" represents the whole physical worker.)

    • Example 2: "Recently Peter bought a new set of wheels." (Where "wheels" represents the entire car.)

  • Trope

    • Definition: Artful, non-literal uses of language, dictionary figures, or artistic turns of phrase.

  • Understatement

    • Definition: The intentional framing of a fact or event as significantly less important or severe than it actually is, often used for emphasis or ironic humor. Opposite of hyperbole.

    • Example: "The 1906 San Francisco earthquake interrupted business somewhat in the downtown area."

  • Whimsy

    • Definition: A fanciful, playful, or lighthearted object, device, or artistic element rooted in unreality.

  • Wit

    • Definition: Intellectual sharpness, perceptive humor, and the talent for original, surprising verbal phrasing that illuminates human behavior.

Syntactical and Grammatical Devices & Sentence Structures

  • Alliteration

    • Definition: The repetition of identical consonant sounds, particularly initial consonant sounds, in closely positioned words. Used to reinforce meaning, unify structure, and create auditory effects.

    • Example: "She sells sea shells by the sea shore."

  • Amplification

    • Definition: The repetition of a word or phrase while adding detailed explanations or descriptive details to clarify and intensify the core meaning.

    • Example 1: "The Constitution established that the United States would be a nation of laws, laws that protected the rights of the weak as well as the mighty."

    • Example 2: "All Ethan asked for was a chance to prove his hard-won ability, a chance to overcome the hardship of his youth."

  • Anaphora

    • Definition: A rhetorical repetition of a word or expression at the beginning of successive clauses, phrases, lines, or sentences.

    • Example: "They are masters who instruct us without rod or ferule, without angry words, without clothes intimidation." — Richard Bury

  • Antithesis

    • Definition: The placement of contrasting ideas side-by-side using parallel syntactic structure to establish a balanced relationship between opposing concepts.

    • Example: "He is no fool who gives what he cannot keep to gain that which he cannot lose." — James Elliot

  • Assonance

    • Definition: The repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds across neighboring, non-rhyming words.

    • Example: "The stray took the bait and ate the spayed grapes."

  • Asyndeton

    • Definition: The intentional omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses, giving a feeling of spontaneous, continuous enumeration.

    • Example: "In Oz, Dorothy was amazed by the Scarecrow, the Tin Woodsman, the Cowardly Lion, the Wicked Witch of the West, the Wizard, Glinda."

  • Chiasmus

    • Definition: A rhetorical pattern in which the syntactic structure of two parallel phrases or clauses is inverted in reverse word order.

    • Example 1: "Pleasure's a sin, and sometimes sin's a pleasure." — Lord Byron

    • Example 2: "Do I love you because you're beautiful, or are you beautiful because I love you?" — Oscar Hammerstein

  • Clause

    • Definition: A grammatical construction containing both a subject and a finite verb. Divided into:

      • Independent (Main) Clause: Expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a complete sentence.

      • Dependent (Subordinate) Clause: Cannot stand alone as a complete sentence and requires an accompanying independent clause.

  • Compound-Complex Sentence

    • Definition: A sentence structure comprising two or more independent clauses combined with at least one dependent clause.

  • Complex Sentence

    • Definition: A sentence structure comprising a single independent clause joined with one or more subordinate clauses.

  • Cumulative Sentence (Loose Sentence)

    • Definition: A sentence that begins with its main independent clause expressing the main idea, followed by accumulating subordinate clauses or phrases that add detail.

  • Declarative Sentence

    • Definition: A direct sentence structure that asserts a factual statement.

  • Elliptical Construction

    • Definition: A sentence from which words or phrases have been deliberately omitted, relying on structural context for full comprehension.

    • Example: "May was hot and June the same." (Omits the verb "was" from the second clause.)

  • Enumeration

    • Definition: A figure of amplification in which a subject is broken down into specific constituent parts, listings, causes, conditions, or consequences.

    • Example 1: "I love her eyes, her hair, her nose, her cheeks, her lips."

    • Example 2: "The university bookstore sells many items besides textbooks. It has current nonfiction, popular fiction, CDs, DVDs, a large selection of periodicals, and office and classroom supplies."

  • Expletive

    • Definition: A short structural word or phrase inserted into a sentence to interrupt flow and emphasize surrounding terms.

    • Example 1: "In fact, I went grocery shopping yesterday, and we now have fresh milk."

    • Example 2: "Indeed, it is frustrating when students do not take their work seriously."

  • Fragment

    • Definition: An incomplete structural unit lacking an independent clause, subject, or predicate.

  • Imperative Sentence

    • Definition: A sentence structure that issues a command, direct instruction, or earnest request.

  • Inversion / Inverted Structure

    • Definition: A sentence construction wherein the finite verb placed before the subject.

  • Loose Sentence

    • Definition: A sentence structure where the primary predicate and independent clause appear at the beginning. If ended early, the sentence remains grammatically complete, producing an informal, conversational style.

  • Modifier

    • Definition: A descriptive word, phrase, or clause that limits, qualifies, or elaborates on another syntactic element.

  • Nominalization

    • Definition: The grammatical process of converting a verb or adjective into a noun form.

  • Parallelism / Parallel Structure

    • Definition: Structural framing of words, phrases, or clauses to establish symmetrical grammatical alignment. Adds emphasis, rhythmic momentum, and clarity.

    • Example: "The first person to arrive in the morning should unlock the door, set up the coffee pot, check the phone messages, and turn on the lights."

  • Periodic Sentence

    • Definition: A sentence that holds its main independent clause in reserve until the absolute end, preceded by dependent clauses or modifiers, creating structural suspense.

  • Polysyndeton

    • Definition: The deliberate use of repeated conjunctions between adjacent words or clauses to create an energetic feeling of multiplicity and persistent building intensity.

    • Example: "And neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night, nor the winds of change, nor a nation challenged will stay us from completion of our appointed rounds." — Herodotus

  • Pronoun

    • Definition: A functional structural word used as a substitute for a noun or noun phrase.

  • Scheme

    • Definition: Artful variations in sentence construction, word ordering, or syntax designed for specific rhetorical impact.

  • Sentence Patterns

    • Definition: Standard arrangements of clauses to form simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex sentences.

  • Sentence Variety

    • Definition: Combining various sentence structures, lengths, and patterns to manage pacing and listener engagement.

  • Simple Sentence

    • Definition: A independent grammatical statement containing a single subject and predicate.

  • Syntax

    • Definition: The arrangement of words into phrases, clauses, and structural sentences. While diction refers to specific word selection, syntax focuses on structural grouping.

  • Transition

    • Definition: Structural words or phrases connecting distinct ideas, signaling logical shifts across sentences or paragraphs.

  • Zeugma

    • Definition: A construction where a single governing word (frequently a verb) modifies two or more nouns in distinctively different or incongruent ways.

    • Example: "John lost his coat and his temper."

Modes of Discourse, Genre, and Analytical Techniques

  • Modes of Discourse (Rhetorical Modes)

    • Definition: The four major functional categories of written composition:

      • Exposition: Explanatory writing designed to inform, clarify, or explain an idea.

      • Narration: Writing that recounts a sequence of events or tells a story.

      • Description: Writing aimed at evoking vivid visual imagery, sensory details, and mood.

      • Argumentation / Persuasion: Writing structured to defend a claim using evidence and logical reasoning.

      • Definition: Identifying the overarching category of a concept and detailing its distinct individual qualities.

      • Classification: Grouping concepts or items into systemic categories based on shared criteria.

      • Process Analysis: Sequential, chronological explanations of how a task is completed or how an event unfolds.

  • Anecdote

    • Definition: A brief narrative detailing specific incidents or personal events.

  • Bombast

    • Definition: Pretentious, inflated, or overly verbose language.

  • Circumlocution

    • Definition: Indirect language or evasive discourse that talks around an issue rather than addressing it directly.

  • Colloquial / Colloquialism

    • Definition: Informal language, regional dialects, or everyday slang not typically appropriate for formal composition.

  • Coherence

    • Definition: The logical integration of parts within a piece of writing to ensure overall clarity.

  • Counterargument

    • Definition: An opposing claim or objection presented to challenge an established stance.

  • Deconstruct

    • Definition: Breaking down a text into constituent structural elements to analyze their meanings in context.

  • Deduction / Deductive Reasoning

    • Definition: Moving logically from general principles to specific conclusions. Opposite of induction.

  • Denotation vs. Connotation

    • Denotation: The literal dictionary definition of a term.

    • Connotation: The implied emotional associations, ideas, or attitudes linked to a word beyond its literal definition.

  • Diction

    • Definition: An author's intentional selection of words regarding clarity, correctness, and communicative power.

  • Didactic

    • Definition: Literature or rhetoric explicitly designed to instruct, particularly on moral or ethical principles.

  • Elegiac / Elegy

    • Definition: A reflective poem or prose selection expressing grief over the passing of a person or value.

  • Epigram

    • Definition: A brief, clever, and thoughtful statement expressing an idea with wit.

  • Epigraph

    • Definition: An inscription recorded in memory of a deceased person, often found on a gravestone.

  • Flashback

    • Definition: A narrative device inserting past events into a narrative's present timeline.

  • Generic Conventions

    • Definition: Standard features and stylistic traditions that define distinct literary genres.

  • Genre

    • Definition: Major categories of literary composition (Prose, Poetry, Nonfiction, Drama). Key AP subgenres include autobiography, biography, diary, criticism, essay, memoir, journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.

  • Homily

    • Definition: Literally a sermon; any serious moral or spiritual address.

  • Hortatory

    • Definition: Strongly encouraging, urging, or commanding language.

  • Hypophora

    • Definition: Raising one or more questions and immediately answering them at length. Used to anticipate and address reader inquiries.

  • Induction / Inductive Reasoning

    • Definition: Deriving general conclusions from specific observations or examples. Common in empirical science; opposite of deductive reasoning.

  • Inference

    • Definition: Drawing a logical conclusion based on evidence, facts, and underlying premises.

  • Jargon

    • Definition: Specialized terminology used within a specific profession or field (e.g., computer terms like crash, download, virus, bug).

  • Juxtaposition

    • Definition: Placing two ideas, images, or terms side-by-side to highlight comparisons or contrasts.

  • Motif

    • Definition: A recurring idea, image, or phrase that reinforces the central theme of a work.

  • Pacing

    • Definition: The speed at which a narrative or argument progresses.

  • Pedantic

    • Definition: An overly scholarly, bookish, or academic tone.

  • Polemic

    • Definition: A passionate written attack against an established philosophical, political, or religious doctrine.

  • Propaganda

    • Definition: Biased or misleading communication designed to sway public opinion rather than present objective information.

  • Prose

    • Definition: Standard written or spoken language lacking poetic meter.

  • Refute

    • Definition: Demonstrating an argument or counterargument to be false or invalid.

  • Rhetorical Question

    • Definition: A question asked for effect or emphasis without expecting an explicit answer, as the answer is self-evident.

  • Semantics

    • Definition: The linguistic study of word meanings, connotations, and historical developments.

  • Syllogism

    • Definition: A three-part deductive logical structure consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a necessary conclusion.

    • Example:

      • Major Premise: All men are mortal.

      • Minor Premise: Socrates is a man.

      • Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

  • Synthesize

    • Definition: Combining individual elements, source materials, or arguments to formulate a new, complex perspective.