CLEP History Master Set

Amendment 3 Citizens do not have to house soldiers. Amendment 8 No excessive bail or cruel punishment. Amendment 10 Any rights not given to the federal government are given to the states and people. Amendment 19 Women get the right to vote. Amendment 26 18-year-olds get to vote. Bill of Rights The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution. First Amendment Protects freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition. Second Amendment Protects the right to bear arms. Fourth Amendment Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures. Fifth Amendment Provides protection against self-incrimination and double jeopardy. Sixth Amendment Guarantees the right to a speedy and public trial, an impartial jury, and legal counsel. Seventh Amendment Ensures the right to a jury trial in civil cases. Eighth Amendment Prohibits excessive bail, fines, and cruel and unusual punishment. Ninth Amendment Declares that rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution are still protected. Tenth Amendment Reserves powers not delegated to the federal government to the states or the people. Fourteenth Amendment Grants citizenship and equal protection under the law; applies the Bill of Rights to the states. Fifteenth Amendment Prohibits voting discrimination based on race. Twenty-Second Amendment Limits the President to two terms. Twenty-Fifth Amendment Establishes procedures for presidential succession and disability. Twenty-Seventh Amendment Prevents Congress from granting itself a pay raise during the current session. Brown v. Board (1954) Declared school segregation unconstitutional; overturned 'separate but equal.' Brown v. Board (1955) Ordered schools to desegregate 'with all deliberate speed.' Baker v. Carr A Supreme Court case that established the principle of "one person, one vote," requiring legislative districts to be equally populated. The ruling allowed federal courts to hear cases on state legislative redistricting, arguing that unequal districts violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This case paved the way for judicial review of redistricting and was later reinforced by Wesberry v. Sanders (1964) for Congressional districts. Planned Parenthood v. Casey Allowed states to regulate abortion but prohibited undue burdens. Clinton v. New York Struck down the presidential line-item veto. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) Established national supremacy and implied powers; upheld the Necessary and Proper Clause. Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) Broadened the interpretation of the Commerce Clause, allowing Congress to regulate interstate commerce. Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) Established 'separate but equal,' upholding racial segregation. Weeks v. United States (1914) Established the 'Exclusionary Rule,' preventing illegally obtained evidence from being used in court. Schenck v. United States (1919) Established the 'clear and present danger' test, limiting free speech during wartime. Gitlow v. New York (1925) Incorporated the First Amendment to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Near v. Minnesota (1931) Ruled prior restraint on publication unconstitutional under the First Amendment. Palko v. Connecticut (1937) Determined which parts of the Bill of Rights apply to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Korematsu v. United States (1944) Upheld internment of Japanese Americans during WWII as a wartime necessity. Engel v. Vitale (1962) Prohibited school-sponsored prayer in public schools. Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) Required states to provide attorneys to defendants in criminal cases. Wesberry v. Sanders (1963) Required Congressional districts to be approximately equal in population. New York Times v. Sullivan (1964) Established the 'actual malice' standard for libel cases involving public figures. Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) Established a right to privacy, striking down laws banning contraception. Miranda v. Arizona (1966) Established Miranda rights, requiring police to inform suspects of their rights. Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971) Created the Lemon Test to determine if a law violates the Establishment Clause. Miller v. California (1973) Established the 'Miller Test' to define obscenity, ruling that materials are obscene if they lack serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value and violate community standards. Roe v. Wade (1973) Legalized abortion within a trimester framework. United States v. Nixon (1974) Limited executive privilege, ruling that the President is not above the law. Buckley v. Valeo (1976) Protected campaign spending as free speech but allowed limits on individual contributions. Gregg v. Georgia (1976) Upheld the constitutionality of the death penalty. UC Regents v. Bakke (1978) Struck down racial quotas but upheld affirmative action. Texas v. Johnson (1989) Protected flag burning as symbolic speech. Shaw v. Reno (1993) Ruled that racial gerrymandering is unconstitutional. United States v. Lopez (1995) Limited Congress' use of the Commerce Clause. Bush v. Gore (2000) Stopped the Florida recount in the 2000 presidential election. Zelman v. Simmons-Harris (2002) Allowed school vouchers for religious schools. Lawrence v. Texas (2003) Struck down sodomy laws, extending privacy rights. Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) Upheld affirmative action in college admissions. Judicial Review A foundational Supreme Court case that established the power of judicial review, allowing courts to strike down laws and government actions that violate the Constitution. Chief Justice John Marshall's ruling asserted that the Constitution is the supreme law of the land and that the judiciary has the authority to interpret it. This decision solidified the Supreme Court's role as a co-equal branch of government. Iron Triangle The relationship between interest groups, congressional committees, and bureaucratic agencies. Judicial Activism The belief that the courts should interpret the Constitution to reflect current conditions and values. Judicial Restraint The belief that courts should avoid overturning laws and defer to elected officials. Swing States States that are closely contested in presidential elections. Federalism The division of power between the national and state governments. Checks and Balances A system ensuring that no one branch of government gains too much power. Separation of Powers Dividing government responsibilities among legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Elastic Clause (Necessary and Proper Clause) Grants Congress the power to pass laws necessary for carrying out its enumerated powers. Commerce Clause Grants Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce. Full Faith and Credit Clause Requires states to recognize public acts, records, and judicial proceedings from other states. Privileges and Immunities Clause Prevents states from discriminating against out-of-state citizens. Supremacy Clause Establishes that federal law takes precedence over state law. Republic A system in which representatives are elected to govern on behalf of the people. Democracy A system of government where power is vested in the people. Popular Sovereignty The idea that government derives its power from the people. Majority Rule The principle that the greater number should exercise greater power. Tyranny of the Majority The potential for the majority to oppress minority groups. Political Socialization The process by which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values. Interest Groups Organizations that seek to influence government policy. Political Action Committees (PACs) Groups that raise money to support candidates and policies. Lobbying The act of attempting to influence decisions made by government officials. Filibuster A tactic used in the Senate to delay a vote by extending debate. Pork Barrel Spending Government spending that benefits a specific district or state. Earmarks Provisions in a bill that direct funds to specific projects. Logrolling The practice of legislators exchanging votes to gain mutual benefits. Reapportionment The process of redistributing House seats based on census results. Pocket Veto When the President takes no action on a bill and Congress adjourns, effectively vetoing it. Spoils System The practice of awarding government jobs to political supporters. Merit System Hiring government employees based on ability rather than political connections. Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883) Established a merit-based system for hiring government employees. Sunshine Laws Require government meetings and records to be open to the public. Writ of Certiorari An order by the Supreme Court to lower courts to send a case record for review. Due Process Clause Found in the 5th and 14th Amendments; protects against arbitrary denial of life, liberty, or property. Selective Incorporation The gradual application of the Bill of Rights to the states case by case. Executive Privilege The right of the President to withhold information from Congress or the courts. Cloture A Senate rule that ends a filibuster with a three-fifths majority vote. Closed Primary A primary election where only registered party members can vote. Hatch Act (1939) A law that restricts the political activities of government employees. Whistleblower Protection Act A law that protects government employees who expose misconduct. Executive Orders Directives issued by the President that carry the weight of law without requiring congressional approval. Presidential Signing Statements Statements issued by the President when signing a bill into law, often to express concerns or interpretations. Title IX (1972) A law that prohibits gender discrimination in education programs receiving federal funding. Symbolic Speech Nonverbal expressions of opinion, such as flag burning, protected under the 1st Amendment. Bureaucratic Discretion The ability of bureaucrats to make decisions on how to implement policies. Administrative Procedure Act (1946) Requires federal agencies to follow standardized procedures when making regulations. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) The executive agency responsible for preparing the federal budget and monitoring federal spending. Congressional Budget Office (CBO) A federal agency that provides nonpartisan analysis of the economy and budget for Congress. Government Accountability Office (GAO) An agency that monitors government spending and efficiency. Sunset Laws Laws that automatically expire after a certain period unless renewed by Congress. Freedom of Information Act (FOIA, 1966) Allows citizens to access government documents. Emergency Powers Powers granted to the President during crises that may bypass normal legal restrictions. Impeachment Process The House of Representatives brings charges (impeachment), and the Senate holds a trial to determine removal. Senatorial Courtesy A tradition allowing senators to have input on judicial nominations in their home states. Living Constitution The idea that the Constitution's meaning can evolve over time based on societal changes. Statutory Interpretation The process by which courts determine the meaning of laws passed by Congress. Writ of Habeas Corpus A legal order requiring a person under arrest to be brought before a judge or court. Single-Issue Interest Groups Organizations that focus on one specific policy area, such as gun rights or environmental protection. National Economic Council A White House agency that advises the president on economic policy. Office of National Drug Control Policy An executive office responsible for coordinating drug policy in the U.S. Council of Economic Advisors A panel of three economists who advise the president on economic matters. Electoral College The system used to elect the President of the United States. Swing States States that are closely contested in presidential elections. Midterm Elections Congressional elections that occur midway through a president's term. Caucus A meeting of party members to select candidates or decide policy. Open Primary A primary election in which voters do not need to be party members to vote. Incumbency Advantage The electoral edge afforded to those already in office. Coattail Effect The influence of a popular presidential candidate on congressional elections. Superdelegate A party leader or elected official who has the freedom to support any candidate at the national convention. Delegate Model of Representation Elected officials act according to the wishes of their constituents. Trustee Model of Representation Elected officials use their own judgment when making decisions. Politico Model of Representation A hybrid of the delegate and trustee models, where representatives act as delegates on some issues and trustees on others. Partisan Model of Representation Representatives act in accordance with their political party's platform and leadership. Agenda Setting The media's ability to influence which issues are considered important in public debate. Priming The media's role in preparing the public to view a political issue in a certain way. Framing The way in which news organizations shape how people interpret political events. Watchdog Journalism Investigative reporting that exposes corruption or government misconduct. Horse-Race Journalism Media coverage that focuses on election polling and candidate competition rather than policy issues. Sound Bite A short, catchy statement designed to be repeated in news coverage. Spin The process of presenting information in a biased or favorable way. Trial Balloon A deliberate leak of policy proposals to test public reaction. Media Consolidation The process by which fewer corporations own an increasing share of media outlets. Bandwagon Effect A psychological phenomenon where people support a candidate or policy simply because it appears popular. Fiscal Policy Government policy related to taxation and spending. Monetary Policy Regulation of the money supply and interest rates by the Federal Reserve. Budget Deficit When government spending exceeds revenue in a given year. National Debt The total amount of money the government owes. Entitlement Programs Government programs providing benefits to those who qualify (e.g., Social Security, Medicare). Social Security A federal program that provides retirement, disability, and survivor benefits. Medicare A federal health insurance program for individuals 65 and older. Medicaid A joint federal and state program that provides healthcare for low-income individuals. Welfare State A government that assumes responsibility for the economic and social well-being of its citizens. Means-Tested Programs Government programs available only to individuals below a certain income level. Progressive Tax A tax system in which the rate increases as income increases. Regressive Tax A tax system in which lower-income individuals pay a higher percentage of their income than higher-income individuals. Flat Tax A tax system where everyone pays the same percentage, regardless of income. Government Shutdown Occurs when Congress fails to pass a budget or appropriations bills. Continuing Resolution A temporary funding measure that keeps the government operating when the budget has not been approved. Debt Ceiling The legal limit on the amount of money the U.S. government can borrow. Judiciary Act of 1789 Established the structure of the federal judiciary. Federalist Papers A series of essays written to promote the ratification of the Constitution. Anti-Federalists Opposed the Constitution, fearing a strong national government. Federalist No. 10 Written by James Madison, argued that a large republic could best control factions. Federalist No. 51 Emphasized the importance of checks and balances. Executive Agreements International agreements made by the President without Senate approval. War Powers Act (1973) Limits the President's power to deploy military forces without Congressional approval. Bully Pulpit The President's use of media and public engagement to shape public opinion. Judicial Restraint The belief that judges should interpret the Constitution based on its original meaning. Devolution The transfer of power from the federal government to state governments. New Federalism A political philosophy that emphasizes the decentralization of power to the states. Block Grants Federal grants that give states broad discretion on spending within a policy area. Categorical Grants Federal grants that require states to spend funds for specific purposes. Unfunded Mandates Federal requirements that states must implement without receiving federal funding. Realignment A significant shift in political party support or voter coalitions. Dealignment A decline in party loyalty and an increase in independent voters. Straight-Ticket Voting Voting for candidates of the same political party across multiple offices. Split-Ticket Voting Voting for candidates from different parties on the same ballot. Critical Election An election that signals a party realignment through voter shifts. Party Polarization The growing ideological distance between political parties. Safe Seat A legislative seat that is consistently won by one party. Swing District A district where elections are highly competitive between parties. Litigation The process of taking legal action in courts. Amicus Curiae Briefs Legal arguments submitted by outside parties to influence court decisions. Stare Decisis The principle of precedent in court rulings. Original Jurisdiction The authority of a court to hear a case first, before any other court. Appellate Jurisdiction The power of a higher court to review decisions made by lower courts. Majority Opinion A court opinion that reflects the views of the majority of judges. Dissenting Opinion A court opinion that disagrees with the majority ruling. Concurring Opinion A court opinion that agrees with the majority ruling but offers different reasoning. Judicial Implementation The process by which court decisions are translated into policy. Revolving Door The movement of individuals between government positions and lobbying roles. Dark Money Political spending by organizations that do not disclose their donors. Soft Money Unregulated contributions to political parties for party-building activities. Hard Money Contributions to political campaigns that are regulated by law. Super PACs Organizations that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money in elections but cannot coordinate directly with candidates. 527 Groups Tax-exempt organizations that engage in political activities but cannot directly endorse candidates. Pluralism A theory that political power is distributed among multiple interest groups. Elite Theory A theory that a small group of wealthy and influential individuals control political decisions. Hyperpluralism A theory that too many competing groups weaken the government's ability to function effectively. Horse-Race Politics Media coverage that focuses on polling and campaign competition rather than policy issues. Gatekeeping The media's role in determining which issues receive public attention. Linkage Institutions Structures that connect citizens to the government, such as political parties and interest groups. Political Ideology A set of beliefs about the role of government and public policy. Laissez-Faire Economics An economic philosophy that opposes government intervention in business. Keynesian Economics An economic theory that supports government spending to manage economic downturns. Supply-Side Economics An economic theory that emphasizes tax cuts and deregulation to stimulate business growth. Inflation An increase in the general price level of goods and services. Recession A decline in economic activity marked by reduced GDP and job losses. Consumer Price Index (CPI) A measure of changes in the cost of goods and services over time. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) The total value of goods and services produced in a country annually. Federal Reserve The central bank of the United States responsible for monetary policy. Interest Rates The cost of borrowing money, set by the Federal Reserve. Trade Deficit A situation in which a country imports more goods than it exports. Tariffs Taxes on imported goods designed to protect domestic industries. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) A trade agreement between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico to reduce tariffs. United Nations An international organization focused on maintaining global peace and cooperation. NATO A military alliance between North America and European nations for collective defense. World Trade Organization (WTO) An international organization that regulates trade agreements among nations. Foreign Aid Economic and military assistance provided by one country to another. Isolationism A foreign policy philosophy advocating minimal involvement in international affairs. Interventionism A foreign policy philosophy advocating active involvement in international conflicts and diplomacy. Preemptive Strike A military attack initiated to prevent an anticipated threat. Articles of Confederation The original constitution of the U.S, which was replaced by the current constitution due to its weakness, such as the lack of a strong central government. Federalist No. 78 An Essay by Alexander Hamilton that discusses the power of judicial review and the role of the judiciary as the weakest branch of government. McDonald v. Chicago (2010) A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled the Second Amendment right to bear arms applies to state and local governments through the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This case extended the ruling of District of Columbia v. Heller (2008), which affirmed an individual's right to own firearms, but only at the federal level. McDonald v. Chicago clarified that states and cities could not impose excessive restrictions on gun ownership. Political Efficacy The belief that one's political participation makes a difference Selective Incorporation The process by which certain rights and freedoms in the Bill of Rights are applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment Political Realignment A major, lasting shift in political party support, often triggered by major crises, social movements, or economic changes. These shifts result in a new dominant party coalition and can reshape the political landscape for decades. Examples: New Deal Realignment (1930s) - Democrats gained dominance as FDR's policies appealed to working-class Americans. Southern Realignment (1960s-70s) - Many white Southern voters switched from the Democratic to the Republican Party due to civil rights policies. Civil Liberties vs. Civil Rights Civil liberties are protections against government actions (e.g., freedom of speech), while civil rights involve the protection of individuals from discrimination. The Federalist Papers A series of 85 essays advocating for the ratification of the U.S Constitution, providing insight into the framers' intentions The Great Compromise An agreement during the Constitutional Convention that established a bicameral legislature, combining the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan The Federalist and Anti-Federalist Debates Discussions between those who supported the new Constitution (Federalists) and those who opposed it (Anti-Federalists), focusing on the balance of power between the national and state governments