Comprehensive Study Notes on Principles, Types, and Processes of Communication

Fundamentals and Elements of Communication

• Definitions of Communication:
  • The process of sending a message or information from a sender through media to the receiver with feedback given.
  • The process of giving, receiving, or exchanging information, opinions, or ideas by writing, speech, or visual means, so that the message communicated is completely understood by the recipient(s).
• Lifecycle of Communication: All communication must be originated, produced, transmitted, received, and understood.
• Core Purpose: Each communication is intended to provide information or evoke action.
• Vital Reasons for Communication:
  • To express an opinion, idea, or attitude.
  • To prompt action from the listener/reader.
  • To reinforce action initiated by other mechanisms.
  • To assign tasks to subordinates.
  • To educate employees.
  • To make contact with the organization's external environment (suppliers, customers, creditors, etc.).
• Essential Elements of Communication:
  • Message: Refers to what is communicated to another person(s); it is the information that is being communicated.
  • Sender: The source or the originator of the message or information that is being communicated.
  • Medium/Method: The means by which the message is transmitted or the route through which the message is passed (e.g., microphones, telephones, letters, and meetings).
  • Receiver: The person or organization to which the message is intended.
  • Feedback: The response from the receiver to the sender or the message that is sent back to the sender by the receiver. It could be verbal, non-verbal, or both.

The Communication Process and Effectiveness

• Stages of the Communication Process:
  • Initiation: Begins with the sender's decision to communicate with the receiver.
  • Message Formation: The sender forms a message either by creating a thought that he or she wishes to communicate or by selecting a bit of information to transmit.
  • Encoding: Before the message can be sent, it has to be encoded—a process involving translating thoughts or information into words, signs, or symbols to enable transmission.
  • Transmission: Transmitted to the receiver by means of a channel that uses either oral or written media.
  • Decoding: The receiver decodes the message upon receiving it. This is essentially the opposite of encoding and occurs when the receiver interprets the message and gives it a meaning from his or her own perspective.
  • Roles: The sender engages in encoding and translating, whereas the receiver engages in decoding and interpreting.
• Role and Importance of Feedback:
  • Feedback enables the sender to determine how much of the message was actually received and how accurately the receiver interpreted it.
  • Only when the desired feedback is received can the sender be sure that he or she communicated accurately.
• Criteria for Effective Communication:
  • Occurs when the receiver understands the meaning of the message as it was intended by the sender.
  • Occurs when the intended meaning of the sender (Encoding) and the perceived meaning of the receiver (Decoding) are one and the same.
• Illustrative Scenario (Standing Up Order):
  • If an order is given that everybody should stand up:
    • If all stand up: Communication is effective.
    • If only a few stand up: There are both positive and negative responses, but the communication process is complete.
    • If none respond (and they are not unable to hear or speak): The process is incomplete; however, if viewed as a negative response, the communication process is complete.

Types and Classifications of Communication

• Types Based on Organizational Boundaries:
  • Internal Communication: Refers to the means of contact within an organization. Various sections must be kept informed of other sections' activities so they can ensure their work aligns with organizational objectives.
  • External Communication: Refers to ways in which an organization makes contact with other organizations and people with which it is involved (e.g., customers, stakeholders, suppliers).
• Four Main Classifications of Communication:
  • Interpersonal Communication: Takes place between two or more people, or among individuals in a small group. Characterized by face-to-face interaction, telephone communication, and writings.
  • Intrapersonal Communication: Communication within and to the self. Could be in the form of reflecting or thinking on how to do something, writing diaries for oneself, or talking to oneself. The individual functions as both the sender and receiver.
  • Extra-Personal Communication: Refers to communication between humans and non-humans, typically involving humans communicating with pet animals.
  • Mass Communication: Communication received by or used by large numbers of people. Requires a mediator for transmission of information (e.g., product advertisements, press interviews, news broadcasts). Characterized by large reach, impersonality, and the presence of a gatekeeper/mediator.

Forms of Communication

• Basic Forms: Verbal Communication and Non-Verbal Communication.
• Verbal Communication: Communicating through the use of words (spoken or written).
  • Oral Communication: Form of spoken communication, face-to-face contact, and instructions from supervisor to subordinate. Described as the lifeblood of personal and business lives.
    • Advantages: Time saving, Cost saving, More powerful, Immediate feedback, A relationship develops, Easiness.
    • Disadvantages: No record, Inaccuracy, Lack of secrecy, Probability of omitting main subject.
  • Written Communication: Permanent format less liable to misrepresentation (e.g., letters, memos, faxes, business documents, minutes).
    • Advantages: Easy to preserve, Easy presentation of complex matter, Permanent record, Prevention of wastage of time, Accurate presentation, Less distortion possibility, No opportunity.
    • Disadvantages: Expensive, Time consuming, Useless for illiterate person, Delay in response.
  • Visual Communication: Graphics used to make complicated ideas or information easier to understand (e.g., pictures, maps, plans, wall charts, pictograms, pie charts, graphs).
    • Advantages: Effective for illiterate receiver, Easy explanation, Prevents wastage of time, Simple presentation of complex information.
    • Disadvantages: Costly, Complex presentation, Difficult to understand, Ambiguity.
• Non-Verbal Communication:
  • The process of communicating with someone using body language, facial expressions, etc.
  • Speaks as loudly and powerfully as verbal elements, and at times even more so.
  • Includes: Shaking hands, Posture, Facial expressions, Appearance, Tone, Hairstyle, Clothes, Expression in your eyes, Smile, How close you stand to others, How you listen, Confidence, Your breathing, The way you move, The way you stand.

Factors in Selecting Communication Methods

• The nature of the message (whether private or confidential).
• The urgency of the message.
• The distance the message has to travel.
• The length and importance of the message.
• The speed and reliability of the medium.
• The cost of the medium.
• The equipment at the disposal of the recipient / the number of receivers.

Barriers to Effective Communication and Solutions

• Categories of Barriers:
  • Physical Barriers: External or environmental stimuli that distract from receiving the intended message (e.g., noise, weather, time).
  • Perceptual Barriers: Arise from how one views others and the world based on self-perception. Differences between expectation and reality create illusions that trick the senses. Caused by status, age difference, difference in background, level of education, interest, religion, gender, etc.
  • Psychological Barriers: Result from preconceived ideas brought to conversations (e.g., anger, fear, negative attitude towards subject matter or sender, biases, excitement, assumptions).
  • Cultural Barriers: Differences in beliefs, customs, and behavior across countries/cultures. Example: In Japanese culture, it is considered proper behavior for men to keep silent; talking too much is viewed as uncultured. This creates issues during interaction with other cultures as they do not speak even when required.
  • Language/Semantic Barriers: Occur when words or phrases mean different things to different people, or through unfamiliar expressions, slang, and jargon. In a global marketplace, talking in the receiver's language is the best way to make them feel good.
  • Physiological Barriers: Result from personal discomfort (e.g., ill health, poor eyesight, hearing difficulties).
  • Competition of the Message: Distractions competing with the primary message.
• Overcoming Communication Barriers:
  • Diagnosing and analyzing situations.
  • Designing proper messages.
  • Selecting appropriate channels for communicating messages.
  • Improving listening skills.
  • Assisting receivers in decoding and interpreting.
  • Providing an efficient and effective feedback system.
  • Developing writing skills.

Rules and Techniques of Good Communication

• Think before communicating: Prepare the communication carefully, determine the objective, and identify how best to achieve it.
• Consider implications: Evaluate what result or consequence the communication will produce.
• Review proposed communication: Ensure it contains all information required for the recipient to make a decision or take action.
• Consider reactions: Anticipate the reactions of the recipient(s) to both content and tone.
• Ensure clarity and conciseness: Choose words carefully.
• Consider timing: Avoid poor timing (e.g., giving next-day instructions a few minutes before staff leave for home).
• Consider location: Select an appropriate setting (e.g., avoid reprimanding in the middle of a busy office or discussing policy decisions in a corridor).
• Obtain feedback: Confirm that the recipient has heard and understood correctly.
• Record essential facts: Make a note of facts required for further action or information, and insist others do the same or provide them with a written note.

Organizational Flow of Communication

• Four Primary Directions of Flow:
  • Downward Communication: The most frequent form of communication within an organization, where supervisors communicate with staff below them (e.g., job instructions, policy statements, procedures, company publications).
  • Upward Communication: Equally important flow moving from junior staff members up to their supervisors.
  • Horizontal / Lateral Communication: Occurs between people of the same status or level in the organization; helps coordinate activities across different departments.
  • Diagonal Communication: Occurs between people of different departments (e.g., a subordinate in one department communicating/reporting to a superior in a different department, or vice versa).
• Communication Grapevines:
  • Describes an official communication system which is constantly changing.
  • Serves as a vehicle for distortions of the truth, rumor, and gossip.
  • An active grapevine can cause severe organizational damage by spreading incomplete, false, or exaggerated information, resulting in low morale, fear, and an unsettled workforce.