Chapter 7 THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

  • Cognitive psychology studies mental processes such as thinking, perception, memory, and problem-solving, reflecting the broader fascination with human thought mirrored in art.

COGNITION

  • Cognition: Refers to the processes of thinking, which encompasses:

    • Perception

    • Knowledge

    • Problem-solving

    • Judgment

    • Language

    • Memory

  • Sensations and information received by our brains are filtered through emotions and memories, leading to thought formation.

CONCEPTS & PROTOTYPES

  • Prototype: The best example or representation of a concept.

    • E.g., Mahatma Gandhi serves as a prototype for civil disobedience.

  • Concepts: Categories of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories; help organize experiences and show relationships among elements.

    • Can be complex/abstract (e.g., justice) or concrete (e.g., types of birds).

NATURAL & ARTIFICIAL CONCEPTS

  • Natural Concepts: Formed through direct or indirect experience.

    • E.g., our concept of snow.

  • Artificial Concepts: Defined by specific characteristics.

    • E.g., properties of geometric shapes like squares and triangles.

SCHEMATA

  • Schema: A mental structure consisting of related concepts.

    • Activates assumptions about objects, people, or situations automatically.

    • Role Schema: Assumptions about behaviors in specific roles (e.g., expectations about librarians).

    • Event Schema (Cognitive Script): Routines and automatic behaviors that dictate actions in familiar contexts (e.g., standing facing the door in an elevator).

EVENT SCHEMA

  • Event schemas are resistant to change due to their automatic nature.

    • E.g., the act of picking up a phone to reply to texts can have negative implications, like texting while driving, which is a dangerous and automatic behavior.

LANGUAGE

  • Language: A communication system using words and systematic rules.

  • Components of Language:

    • Lexicon: The vocabulary of a language.

    • Grammar: The rules governing the structure and meaning of language.

    • Phoneme: The smallest sound unit (e.g., "ah", "eh").

    • Morpheme: The smallest meaningful unit of language.

  • Language Structure:

    • Semantics: The meanings derived from morphemes and words.

    • Syntax: The arrangement of words into sentences.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

  • Noam Chomsky proposed that language acquisition mechanisms are biologically determined, developing similarly across cultures without formal instruction.

  • Critical Period: The optimal time for language proficiency, typically early in life, during which language deprivation can severely limit language ability.

    • Case Study - Genie: Found at age 13 with no social interaction; able to learn vocabulary but not grammar due to deprivation during the critical period.

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES

  • Trial and Error: Attempting various solutions until the problem is resolved.

  • Algorithm: A step-by-step formula for problem-solving.

  • Heuristic: A general framework for problem-solving; includes:

    • Short-cuts

    • Working-backwards: Starting with the desired outcome.

    • Breaking tasks into smaller steps.

  • Heuristics are used when:

    • There's an overload of information.

    • Decisions need to be made quickly.

    • Decisions have low personal stakes.

PUZZLE EXAMPLES

  • Sudoku (Puzzle 1): Regular practice in problem solving, often showcased through puzzles like Sudoku.

  • Spatial Reasoning (Puzzle 2): Connecting nine dots with four straight lines without lifting the pencil showcases problem-solving skills.

PITFALLS TO PROBLEM SOLVING

  • Functional Fixedness: The inability to see an object used in a novel way.

    • E.g., not thinking to use a box as a holder to mount a candle because of fixation on its standard function.

  • Mental Sets: The persistent use of approaches that have worked in the past can hinder problem-solving.

  • Einstein's quote encapsulates this issue: "Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again, expecting different results."

BIASES IN DECISION MAKING

  • Decision making can be influenced by biases:

    • Anchoring bias: Focusing too heavily on one piece of information.

    • Confirmation bias: Seeking out information that supports existing beliefs.

    • Hindsight bias: Believing an event was predictable after it has happened.

    • Representative bias: Stereotyping based on existing categories.

    • Availability heuristic: Making decisions based on the most readily available information.

CLASSIFYING INTELLIGENCE

  • Intelligence: Various definitions exist among psychologists.

  • Charles Spearman: Introduced the concept of 'g', a general factor of intelligence across abilities.

  • Raymond Cattell: Divided intelligence into:

    • Crystallized Intelligence: Knowledge and the ability to recall it.

    • Fluid Intelligence: The ability to reason and solve new problems.

TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

  • Robert Sternberg's Theory: Identifies three types of intelligence:

    • Analytical Intelligence: Academic problem-solving and computation.

    • Creative Intelligence: Problem-solving through innovation and imagination.

    • Practical Intelligence: Common sense and everyday problem-solving skills.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY

  • Howard Gardner: Proposed eight distinct intelligences:

    1. Linguistic

    2. Logical-Mathematical

    3. Musical

    4. Bodily-Kinesthetic

    5. Spatial

    6. Interpersonal

    7. Intrapersonal

    8. Naturalist

  • Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences are often referred to as Emotional Intelligence, defined as the ability to recognize one’s own and others' emotions and manage interpersonal relationships judiciously.

CREATIVITY

  • Creativity: The ability to produce new ideas or solutions.

  • Characteristics of creative individuals include:

    • In-depth knowledge of their field.

    • Sustained work on projects over time.

    • Open to novel solutions.

    • Willingness to seek external advice and take risks.

  • Divergent Thinking: The ability to think outside the box and explore multiple possibilities.

  • Convergent Thinking: The ability to arrive at a correct or established answer.

MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE

  • IQ (Intelligence Quotient): A score derived from standardized tests designed to assess intelligence.

    • The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale was developed by Alfred Binet.

    • Louis Terman later modified it by standardizing the method of administration and establishing norm-referenced scores.

    • Standardization: Ensures consistency in test administration and interpretation.

    • Norming: Involves comparing test results across broad populations to derive normative data.

ALFRED BINET

  • Alfred Binet was a pioneer in intelligence testing and developed the Binet-Simon Scale to assess children's intellectual functioning centered on immediate perceptions and responses.

WECHSLER ADULT INTELLIGENCE SCALE (WAIS)

  • Developed by David Wechsler, defining intelligence as “the global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.”

  • Created a combination of tests measuring varied verbal and non-verbal skills, including the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V).

  • Flynn Effect: Observed increase in IQ scores over generations, leading to periodic recalibration of tests.

THE BELL CURVE

  • Results of intelligence tests follow a normal distribution; the average IQ score is set at 100.

    • Standard Deviation: In IQ testing, it is 15 points, with a score of 85 representing one standard deviation below the mean and scores between 85 and 115 considered average.

INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY

  • Approximately 2.2% of the population scores below 70 on IQ tests, categorizing them as intellectually disabled, demonstrating deficits in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior.

    • Subtypes include mild, moderate, severe, and profound often previously termed as mental retardation.

THE SOURCE OF INTELLIGENCE

  • Nature vs. Nurture:

    • Nature: Intelligence is inherited; twin studies show a higher correlation of IQ among identical twins.

    • Nurture: Environment influences intelligence, with stimulation from parents reflecting in children's developmental outcomes.

    • Range of Reaction Theory: Suggests an individual responds to their environment based on their genetic makeup, which sets the boundaries for one's intellectual potential.

GENETICS AND IQ

  • Studies show that IQ correlations are stronger among genetically related individuals, regardless of whether they were raised together or apart.

LEARNING DISABILITIES

  • Learning disabilities affect specific cognitive processes, particularly language and reading, and are distinct from general intellectual development.

  • Common types include:

    • Dysgraphia: Difficulty with legible writing and putting thoughts on paper.

    • Dyslexia: The most widespread learning disability affecting letter processing, common in children, often leading to letter reversals.