The Congress of Vienna and the Post-Napoleonic European Order

Origins and Objectives of the Vienna Congress

Napoleon's extensive conquests significantly altered the political map of Europe. Following his defeat, the prominent European ruling dynasties—the Habsburgs of Austria, the Hohenzollerns of Prussia, and the Romanovs of Russia—resolved to restore the continent to its previous state. While Napoleon was in exile on the island of Elba in September $1814$, representatives from various European states convened in Vienna to establish a new order and rescind Napoleon's political and territorial alterations. The primary objective of this gathering was "Restoration" (Restauracija), specifically the reconstruction of Europe as it existed prior to Napoleon's rise. The congress spanned from September $1814$ to June $1815$.

Key figures who directed the proceedings included Tsar Alexander I of Russia, King Frederick William III of Prussia, Chancellor Metternich of Austria (representing Emperor Francis I), and Minister Castlereagh of Great Britain. A famous contemporary observation noted that "The Congress does not work; it dances," referring to the fact that many participants conducted negotiations and socialized during balls and festivities rather than formal sessions.

Guiding Principles: Legitimacy and the Balance of Power

The Congress was guided by two fundamental principles designed to ensure long-term stability and the preservation of monarchical authority. The first was the Principle of Dynastic Legitimacy, which called for the restoration of absolutist dynasties to their former positions. This principle viewed the state as the private property of the dynasty and emphasized the inviolability of their historical rights.

The second guiding principle was the Balance of Power (Ravnoteža snaga). This doctrine dictated that no single great power should be allowed to gain dominance over the others. To achieve this equilibrium, the participants deemed it necessary to redraw the borders of Europe. These principles were intended to prevent future revolutionary movements and ensure that the traditional social and political hierarchies remained intact against the reforms introduced during the Napoleonic era.

Major Territorial Changes and Reorganization

The negotiations resulted in significant geographical shifts across the European continent. France was reduced to its borders from $1792$, and the authority of the Bourbon dynasty was restored. The Duchy of Warsaw was transformed into the Kingdom of Poland and became linked to Russia through a personal union. Austria expanded its influence by occupying its former possessions in Italy, including Venice and the Illyrian Provinces.

Notably, the Holy Roman Empire was not restored. In its place, the German Confederation (Njemački savez) was established, covering the period from $1815$ to $1866$. Additionally, the Netherlands and Belgium were unified into the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Other smaller states and territories mentioned in maps and documents from the Congress include Denmark, Sweden, the Papal States, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and various Italian duchies like Parma, Modena, and Tuscany.

The Holy Alliance and the Policy of Interventionism

Driven by a profound fear of new revolutions similar to the French Revolution, the major powers established the Holy Alliance (Sveta alijansa) in $1815$. Initially formed as a pact between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, its primary goal was the preservation of the order established at the Congress of Vienna. Eventually, an additional $16$ states joined this alliance.

The formation of the Holy Alliance institutionalized the policy of interventionism. This policy granted the great powers the right to intervene militarily in neighboring countries if a revolution broke out, allowing them to suppress uprisings and maintain the status quo. This system was designed to protect the interests of the state and the church against radical changes.

Political Ideologies: Conservatism and Liberalism

In the aftermath of the Congress of Vienna, European politics was defined by the conflict between two opposing ideologies: Conservatism and Liberalism. Conservatism focused on preserving the traditional positions of the state and the church. It supported the authority and sovereignty of the monarch, arguing that individual freedom should be limited to maintain social order. This ideology was championed by the nobility, the church, and the wealthy bourgeoisie. Within this movement, "reactionaries" sought a total return to the conditions that existed before the French Revolution. Conservatism viewed the individual as morally imperfect and intellectually limited, emphasizing that the nation and religion were essential structures that provided people with their values and identity.

Liberalism, by contrast, was rooted in the ideas of the Enlightenment. Liberals were critical of absolute monarchy and advocated for constitutionalism and parliamentary democracy. They championed individual freedoms, including the freedom of speech, the press, and assembly, as well as religious tolerance. The core values of Liberalism were individualism and personal freedom, operating on the premise that individuals should act responsibly within a community and be treated as equals regardless of their differences. This ideology contested the authority of the state whenever it infringed upon these basic rights.

Long-term Consequences and the Path to $1848$

The Congress of Vienna yielded both positive and negative outcomes. On the positive side, it succeeded in stabilizing political conditions in Europe for several decades and established the foundations of modern European diplomacy. However, the negative impact was the restoration of the "Ancien Régime" (the old order), which prioritized the interests of the aristocracy and reinstated absolutist rule.

This restoration marginalized the middle class (bourgeoisie), who lost the opportunities for advancement they had gained during the revolutionary years. While the Napoleonic Code remained in effect in many places and old feudal relations were not always completely restored, widespread dissatisfaction began to simmer among the middle class, workers, and peasants. This growing discontent reached its peak in the second major wave of European revolutions in $1848$, which sought to overturn the restrictive measures imposed in $1815$.

Questions & Discussion

Based on the material provided, the following questions are essential for reviewing the topic:

1. When did the Vienna Congress take place? ($1814$ to $1815$).
2. What was the central goal of the Congress? (Restoration).
3. Explain the two fundamental principles of the Congress. (Dynastic Legitimacy and Balance of Power).
4. Who were the main participants and which states did they represent? (Russia – Alexander I; Prussia – Frederick William III; Austria – Metternich; Great Britain – Castlereagh).
5. Describe the territorial changes in Europe following the Congress. (France to $1792$ borders, Polish Kingdom in union with Russia, Austria gaining Venice/Illyrian provinces, creation of the German Confederation, unification of Netherlands and Belgium).
6. What were the positive and negative consequences of the Congress?
7. Who were the members and what was the goal of the Holy Alliance?
8. Define the terms Conservatism and Liberalism in the context of the $19$th century. In a conservative view, what is the position of the individual and why is tradition emphasized? In a liberal view, how is individual freedom perceived and what should limit it?