Associations

Learning

  • Definition of Learning

    • Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.

    • It serves an adaptive (and intelligent) function in individuals.

    • There are three major types of learning:

    • Classical Conditioning

    • Operant Conditioning

    • Cognitive Learning

Philosophy of Learning

  • Philosophical Background

    • Before the establishment of psychology, many questions regarding cognition were posed by philosophers.

    • Epistemology: The study of knowledge that motivated early psychological inquiry focusing on how we acquire, retain, and use knowledge.

  • Influential Philosophers

    • Rationalism

    • Emphasizes logic and reasoning based on ideas proposed by Plato (~428 – 347 BC).

    • Empiricism

    • Focuses on experience and observation based on ideas proposed by Aristotle (~384 – 322 BC).

Associationism in Learning

  • Associationists

    • The Associationist School consisted of empiricist philosophers who explored mental processes that produce knowledge from experience.

    • A key question was how associations in the mind form and influence behavior, serving as a bridge between philosophy and experimental psychology.

    • John Locke (1632 – 1704):

    • Discussed the Association of Ideas as a non-rational process.

    • Suggested that some associations are "natural and good," maintained by reasoning, while others are arbitrary, depending on a person's history of experience.

  • Principles of Association

    • Contiguity: The strength of the association depends on the proximity of events in space and time.

    • Similarity: More similar events develop stronger associations.

    • Frequency: Events that co-occur more frequently are associated more strongly.

    • Recency: Associations formed with more recent events are stronger than those formed with more remote events.

Implications of Associationist Claims

  • The claims of associationists are specific enough to be evaluated with evidence, facilitating the application of the scientific method to assess claims about associations and cognition.

  • Basic claims to test:

    1. People have associations between concepts.

    2. New associations can be learned.

    3. Some associations are stronger than others.

Mental Chronometry

  • James McKeen Cattell:

    • Conducted experiments to test theories of cognitive processes related to the formation of associations.

    • Focused on mental chronometry, which measures the time required for mental operations.

    • This tool is essential for studying the speed and structure of cognitive processes.

  • Cattell's Experiment:

    • Examined the time taken to name objects using letters visible through a "kymograph" (a device for measuring time intervals).

    • Results showed that participants could identify a letter more quickly when it was surrounded by four other letters, suggesting that while one central idea may be present, other background ideas may also be associated.

Learning Behavior Studied by Thorndike

  • Edward Thorndike (1874 – 1949):

    • Studied learning behavior in cats using a “Puzzle box” to understand how cats solved problems.

    • His research inspired the Skinner Box and contributed to the development of the Law of Effect:

    • Behaviors that are rewarded tend to be repeated.

    • This forms the basis of Operant Conditioning.

  • Animal Intelligence

    • Investigated associative learning through systematic experimentation.

    • Observed that animals learned to escape from boxes, with their escape times improving with practice.

    • Raised questions about how animals solved problems and the associations involved.

Observational Learning

  • Definition of Observational Learning:

    • Acquiring new behaviors by imitating observed behaviors of others, also known as Vicarious Learning or Modeling.

    • Learning occurs through secondhand experiences, allowing individuals to perform behaviors without direct experience.

    • Example: "I can do that! Look what Zog does!"

  • Bandura's Bobo Doll Study (Bandura, 1965):

    • Demonstrated that children learn behaviors by observing adult models.

  • Results of Bobo Doll Study:

    • If children observed a model behaving aggressively towards the toy, they mimicked similar aggressive behavior.

    • If they witnessed a model ignoring the toy, they also ignored it.

  • Influencing Factors in Observational Learning:

    • The influence of modeling is stronger when:

    • The model is similar to the learner.

    • The learner admires the model.

    • Positive reinforcement is evident when the behavior is performed (recognized as a "Good job!").

    • Witnessing the model being punished inhibited the behavior among children.

Further Research on Imitation

  • Investigated whether non-human animals learn from imitation.

  • Studies on animals such as cats, dogs, and chicks showed that they did not exhibit improved problem-solving when observing other groups learning to escape the box.

  • Conclusion:

    • Imitation might not be purely a human experience, but humans appear to have an advanced capability for forming associations without needing to undergo the exact process.

Classical Conditioning

  • Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936):

    • Awarded the Nobel Prize for work on digestion.

    • His studies on salivation and digestive processes in dogs led to the discovery of Classical Conditioning.

    • This is one of the most influential theories on learning, indicating that much of our learned behavior is shaped by conditioning processes.

  • Definition of Classical Conditioning:

    • A learning process in which a reflexive response to one stimulus becomes linked to another stimulus.

    • Example: The relationship between Jim and Dwight (as a humorous depiction).

    • Classical conditioning enables us to link items together and to anticipate events, represented by the model of Stimulus → Response (S → R).

Components of Classical Conditioning

  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US):

    • A stimulus that automatically produces an unlearned response.

    • Examples include:

    • US = puff of air

    • US = bright light

    • US = food

  • Unconditioned Response (UR):

    • The automatic, unlearned response to a US:

    • UR = blink (to puff of air)

    • UR = squint (to bright light)

    • UR = salivate (to food)

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS):

    • A stimulus that does not evoke any response prior to conditioning.

    • Example: A specific tone that does not elicit any reaction before being paired with a US.

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS):

    • A previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with a US to evoke a UR.

    • For instance, a tone that has been linked with food that evokes salivation.

  • Conditioned Response (CR):

    • A learned response to a CS that has been conditioned to elicit a response.

    • Example: Salivation in response to the tone.

Phases of Classical Conditioning

  • Phase 1: Before Conditioning

    • US (food) produces UR (salivation) and NS produces no response.

  • Phase 2: During Conditioning

    • NS is paired with US repeatedly until it becomes CS.

  • Phase 3: After Conditioning

    • CS alone triggers CR (salivation).

Conditioning Process Illustration

  • Step Breakdown:

    • Step 1: US (food) triggers UR (salivation).

    • Step 2: Pair US with NS (tone) repeatedly.

    • Step 3: NS becomes CS; it alone evokes CR (salivation).

Outcomes of Classical Conditioning

  • Extinction:

    • The gradual disappearance or weakening of the CR to a CS when the US is removed.

  • Spontaneous Recovery:

    • The reappearance of a learned response after a period of extinction.

  • Learning is characterized as a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of conditioning.

The Conditioning of "Little Albert"

  • Before Conditioning:

    • Child shows no fear of the white rat (NS).

  • During Conditioning:

    • The rat (CS) is paired with a loud noise (US) that evokes a fear response (UR).

  • After Conditioning:

    • Child exhibits fear (CR) of the rat (CS) even in the absence of the loud noise.

Classical Conditioning Phenomena

  • Generalization:

    • Associating stimuli similar to the CS with the CS.

    • Similar stimuli evoke similar responses.

  • Discrimination:

    • The ability to distinguish between a CS and unrelated stimuli.

    • Not associating dissimilar stimuli with the CS.

Comparisons of Conditioning Types

  • Classical Conditioning:

    • Learning through the formation of associations between stimuli that are beyond our control.

    • Engages respondent behavior, which is automatic and reflexive.

  • Operant Conditioning:

    • Learning through associations formed between a behavior and its consequences.

    • Involves reward and punishment; outcomes result from behaviors.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

  • The frequency of a behavioral response is influenced by its consequences:

    • Responses that produce satisfying consequences are strengthened and more likely to recur (reinforcement).

    • Responses leading to discomfort are weakened and less likely to be repeated (punishment).