Methods for Writing Argument

Three Methods for Building Arguments

Classical Model

• Introduction

  • Lead-in to grab attention

  • Overview of the situation and background information

• Position Statement (Thesis)

  • Clearly state your thesis or main argument.

• Appeals

  • Ethos: Appeals to ethics, character, or authority.

  • Pathos: Appeals to emotions

  • Logos: Appeals to reason (logic)

• Evidence

  • Use statistics, findings, examples, and references to authoritative texts to support your argument.

• Refutation

  • Address and counter opposing arguments; this often occurs with the presentation of evidence.

• Conclusion (Peroration)

  • Summarize key points

  • Recommendations, if appropriate

  • Restate the thesis in an illuminating way.

Toulmin Model

• Developed by philosopher Stephen Toulmin, identifies six components essential for a strong argument.

• Parts of the Toulmin Argument:

  • Data: Facts or evidence supporting the argument.

  • Claim: The thesis or main point argued.

  • Warrants: General statements linking the claim and data, often implicit.

  • Qualifiers: Limitations or conditions under which the claim holds true.

  • Rebuttals: Counter-arguments and conditions where the general claim fails.

  • Backing: Supporting statements that reinforce the warrants without proving the main claim.

Toulmin Model Structure

1. Introduction

   • Introduce the problem with a hook

   • Present the claim or thesis with necessary qualifiers.

2. Data Presentation

   • Provide evidence supporting the claim with multiple data points.

3. Backing for Warrants

   • Show the soundness of the logical framework used.

4. Counter-Arguments and Rebuttals

   • Present and counter opposing views systematically.

5. Conclusion

   • Summarize the implications of your argument and finalize with a thought-provoking statement.

Rogerian Model

• Developed by psychologist Carl Rogers, emphasizes minimizing hostility in disagreements to find common ground.

• Key Elements:

  • Introduce the issue: Present the problem neutrally.

  • Summary of Opposing Views: Show understanding of opposing arguments without demeaning them.

  • Contextual Validity: Explain in what conditions opposing views are also valid.

  • Your Position: Clearly state your argument and the context where it holds true.

  • Reconciliation: Explain how the opposing view can benefit from integrating aspects of your position.

  • Statement of Benefits: Present benefits for those who hold differing views but may respect your position after understanding it.

Comparison of Models

• Classical Model:

  • Based on Aristotle’s principles of ethos, pathos, logos.

  • Follows a strict format of introduction, evidence, refutation, and conclusion.

• Toulmin Model:

  • More pragmatic; emphasizes claims, data, and how arguments are subject to scrutiny and realistic complexities.

  • Allows for accommodation of counter-arguments, focusing on real-world applicability.

• Rogerian Model:

  • Prioritizes cooperation and common ground instead of winning an argument.

  • Emphasizes understanding and accommodating differing viewpoints.

This concise understanding of the three major methods of constructing arguments will aid in choosing the appropriate approach for effective communication and persuasion in your writing.

Classical Model

• Summary: Focuses on Aristotle’s principles of ethos, pathos, and logos. It follows a strict structure: introduction, evidence, refutation, and conclusion.

• Example of Use: Effective for persuasive essays where the author needs to establish credibility (ethos) and connect emotionally (pathos) with the audience while presenting logical arguments (logos).

Toulmin Model

• Summary: Developed by Stephen Toulmin, this model identifies six key components for building an argument: data, claim, warrants, qualifiers, rebuttals, and backing. It emphasizes the complexity and real-world applicability of arguments.

• Example of Use: Ideal for debates or discussions where one needs to present complex issues with multiple layers (evidence and reasoning) and address opposing viewpoints.

Rogerian Model

• Summary: Created by Carl Rogers, this model aims to minimize hostility by emphasizing understanding and finding common ground. Key components include introducing the issue, summarizing opposing views, and presenting one’s position while explaining potential reconciliation.

• Example of Use: Useful in conflict resolution scenarios where it is essential to address differing perspectives respectfully and work towards a collaborative solution.