Aztecs and the Spanish conquest, 1519—1535 (OCR)
Aztecs and the Spanish Conquest, 1519-1535
1. The Aztec Civilization Before the Spanish Conquest:
Origins and Rise to Power:
Migration to the Valley of Mexico (c. 13th Century): The Mexica, a Nahuatl-speaking people, migrated to the Valley of Mexico, a region already populated by other city-states.
Foundation of Tenochtitlan (c. 1325): Legend says they settled on an island in Lake Texcoco after seeing an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak (a sign from their god Huitzilopochtli).
Triple Alliance (15th Century): Alliance formed between Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan, leading to Aztec dominance in the Valley of Mexico and beyond. Tenochtitlan became the leading power.
Expansion and Empire Building: Aztecs expanded their control through military conquest and alliances, creating a tribute empire that stretched across Mesoamerica.
Tenochtitlan: The Aztec Capital:
Island City: Built on an island in Lake Texcoco, a marvel of engineering and urban planning.
Chinampas (Floating Gardens): Artificial islands created for agriculture, highly productive and supported a large population.
Causeways and Canals: Connected the city to the mainland, facilitated transportation and trade.
Temples and Palaces: Grand pyramids (Templo Mayor), palaces, and public buildings showcased Aztec power and religious beliefs.
Market of Tlatelolco: Huge marketplace, center of trade and commerce, described in detail by Spanish accounts.
Population: One of the largest cities in the world at the time, estimated population of 200,000 or more.
Aztec Society:
Social Hierarchy: Rigid social structure:
Emperor (Tlatoani): Divine ruler, head of state, military, and religion.
Nobility (Pipiltin): Priests, warriors, high officials, landowners; hereditary class.
Commoners (Macehualtin): Farmers, artisans, merchants; majority of the population.
Slaves (Tlacotin): Debtors, criminals, war captives; not hereditary, could own property and children were born free.
Religion: Polytheistic religion with a complex pantheon of gods.
Huitzilopochtli: God of war and sun, patron deity of Tenochtitlan.
Tlaloc: God of rain and agriculture.
Quetzalcoatl: Feathered serpent god, associated with knowledge and civilization.
Human Sacrifice: Central ritual in Aztec religion, believed necessary to appease the gods and maintain cosmic balance. Often performed at the Templo Mayor.
Economy: Based on agriculture, tribute, and trade.
Agriculture: Chinampas, maize, beans, squash, chili peppers.
Tribute: Conquered territories paid tribute in goods (food, textiles, luxury items) and labor.
Trade: Extensive trade networks throughout Mesoamerica; merchants (Pochteca) played a vital role.
Culture and Achievements:
Nahuatl Language: Language of the Aztecs, written using a pictographic and phonetic system.
Calendar System: Sophisticated calendar system, including a solar and a ritual calendar.
Art and Architecture: Impressive stone carvings, monumental architecture, featherwork, pottery, and jewelry.
Education: Formal education system for both nobles and commoners, focused on religious, military, and craft skills.
2. The Spanish Arrival and Conquest (1519-1521):
Hernán Cortés and his Expedition (1519):
Motivations: Gold, glory, and God (spread Christianity). Driven by ambition and the desire for wealth and status.
Departure from Cuba: Cortés disobeyed orders from the Governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez, and set sail for the mainland with around 500 soldiers, sailors, horses, and cannons.
Landing in Veracruz: Established a settlement at Veracruz, symbolically breaking ties with Cuban authority and declaring direct allegiance to the Spanish crown.
Initial Encounters and Alliances:
La Malinche (Doña Marina): Indigenous woman who became Cortés's interpreter, advisor, and mistress. Crucial for communication and diplomacy.
Jerónimo de Aguilar: Spanish priest shipwrecked years earlier, spoke Mayan language, helped with initial communication.
Alliance with Tlaxcalans: Tlaxcala was an independent city-state and long-time enemy of the Aztecs. Cortés forged a crucial alliance with them, gaining thousands of warriors.
Other Indigenous Alliances: Cortés also gained support from other groups resentful of Aztec rule, such as the Totonacs and others.
March to Tenochtitlan (1519):
Battles and Diplomacy: Cortés used a combination of force and diplomacy to navigate through Mesoamerica.
Cholula Massacre: Spanish and Tlaxcalan forces massacred Cholulan nobles, a city allied to the Aztecs, as a demonstration of power and to sow fear.
Entry into Tenochtitlan and Moctezuma II:
Welcomed by Moctezuma II (November 1519): Aztec emperor Moctezuma II initially welcomed Cortés and his men into Tenochtitlan, possibly due to a belief that Cortés might be the god Quetzalcoatl returning.
Spanish Residence in Tenochtitlan: Spanish were housed in the palace of Axayacatl.
Moctezuma as a Hostage: Cortés gradually took Moctezuma hostage, controlling the Aztec emperor and through him, the city.
The "Noche Triste" (Night of Sorrows) (June 1520):
Tensions Rise: Spanish actions (desecration of temples, attempts to stop human sacrifice) and their prolonged stay increased tensions in Tenochtitlan.
Massacre in the Templo Mayor: While Cortés was away in Veracruz dealing with Spanish forces sent to arrest him, his lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado ordered a massacre of Aztec nobles during a religious festival.
Rebellion in Tenochtitlan: Aztecs rose up in rebellion against the Spanish.
Spanish Escape: Spanish and their allies were forced to flee Tenochtitlan in a chaotic retreat, suffering heavy losses during the "Noche Triste." Moctezuma II died during this period (circumstances are debated - killed by Spanish or Aztecs).
Siege and Fall of Tenochtitlan (1521):
Spanish Regroup and Prepare: Cortés retreated to Tlaxcala, regrouped, and built new ships (brigantines) to attack Tenochtitlan by water.
Siege of Tenochtitlan: Spanish and their indigenous allies laid siege to Tenochtitlan for several months.
Naval Blockade: Brigantines controlled Lake Texcoco, preventing supplies from reaching the city and hindering Aztec escape.
Disease: Smallpox epidemic ravaged Tenochtitlan during the siege, killing a large portion of the population, including warriors and leaders.
Cuauhtémoc's Resistance: Cuauhtémoc, Moctezuma's successor, led the Aztec defense, but the city was weakened by disease and starvation.
Fall of Tenochtitlan (August 13, 1521): After fierce fighting, Tenochtitlan fell to the Spanish and their allies. Cuauhtémoc was captured, marking the end of Aztec rule.
3. Factors Contributing to Spanish Victory:
Military Technology:
Steel Weapons and Armor: Spanish swords, spears, and armor were superior to Aztec obsidian weapons and cotton armor.
Firearms and Cannons: Gunpowder weapons (though limited in number initially) caused fear and damage.
Horses: Horses provided mobility, shock tactics, and psychological advantage, as Aztecs had never seen them before.
Brigantines: Spanish-built ships were crucial for controlling Lake Texcoco and besieging Tenochtitlan.
Disease:
Smallpox Epidemic: European diseases, especially smallpox, to which indigenous populations had no immunity, devastated the Aztec population. It weakened their military strength, leadership, and societal structure. Smallpox arrived in Mesoamerica even before the siege of Tenochtitlan and played a critical role in the Spanish victory.
Indigenous Alliances:
Tlaxcalans and Others: Crucial alliances with Tlaxcalans and other indigenous groups provided the Spanish with manpower, local knowledge, supplies, and logistical support. Indigenous allies outnumbered the Spanish significantly and were essential to the conquest.
Aztec Internal Divisions and Weaknesses:
Subject Peoples' Resentment: Many city-states under Aztec rule resented paying tribute and providing sacrificial victims. They saw the Spanish as liberators from Aztec oppression.
Centralized Empire: Aztec empire was centralized around Tenochtitlan. Capturing the capital effectively crippled the empire.
Military Tactics: Aztec warfare was often ritualistic and focused on capturing prisoners for sacrifice rather than annihilation, which contrasted with Spanish total warfare tactics.
Cortés's Leadership and Tactics:
Charismatic Leader: Cortés was a skilled and ruthless leader, able to inspire his men and forge alliances.
Divide and Conquer: Effectively exploited divisions among indigenous groups, forming alliances against the Aztecs.
Adaptability and Determination: Cortés adapted to the unfamiliar environment and persisted despite setbacks like the Noche Triste.
Strategic Thinking: Recognized the importance of Tenochtitlan, used brigantines effectively, and understood the political landscape.
4. Aftermath and Consolidation (1521-1535):
Destruction and Rebuilding of Tenochtitlan:
Razing of Tenochtitlan: Spanish systematically destroyed Aztec temples, palaces, and buildings in Tenochtitlan.
Construction of Mexico City: Spanish built a new capital, Mexico City, directly on top of the ruins of Tenochtitlan, using Aztec stones and materials. Symbolically and literally replacing Aztec power.
Cathedrals and Spanish Architecture: Construction of churches and Spanish-style buildings, reflecting the new colonial order.
Establishment of New Spain:
Colony of New Spain: Former Aztec territories became the Spanish colony of New Spain.
Encomienda System: Spanish crown granted conquistadors Encomiendas - rights to tribute and labor from specific indigenous populations. Led to exploitation and abuse of indigenous people.
Spanish Administration: Establishment of Spanish colonial administration, with a Viceroy appointed by the Spanish King to govern New Spain.
Spread of Catholicism: Missionaries (Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians) arrived to convert indigenous populations to Christianity. Often involved destruction of indigenous religious artifacts and practices.
Impact on Aztec Society, Religion, and Culture:
Demographic Collapse: Disease, warfare, and exploitation led to a catastrophic decline in the indigenous population of Mesoamerica in the decades following the conquest.
Religious Conversion: Forced and voluntary conversion to Catholicism; syncretism - blending of indigenous beliefs with Catholic practices.
Cultural Transformation: Suppression of Aztec religion and cultural practices; imposition of Spanish language, culture, and social norms.
Social Disruption: Old Aztec social hierarchy was dismantled, replaced by a Spanish-dominated colonial system. Indigenous nobility lost power and status.
Early Spanish Exploitation:
Extraction of Wealth: Spanish focused on extracting gold and silver from New Spain, leading to mining operations and exploitation of indigenous labor.
Agricultural Exploitation: Introduction of Spanish crops and livestock, but also the exploitation of indigenous labor in agriculture.
Transatlantic Slave Trade: As indigenous populations declined, Spanish began importing enslaved Africans to work in mines and plantations.
Resistance and Rebellions:
Early Rebellions: Indigenous resistance continued after the fall of Tenochtitlan, though often localized and ultimately suppressed.
Guerrilla Warfare: Some groups retreated to remote areas and continued resistance for decades.
Cultural Resistance: Indigenous people preserved aspects of their culture, language, and beliefs despite Spanish efforts at suppression.
5. Key Figures:
Moctezuma II: Aztec Emperor at the time of Spanish arrival. His initial welcome of Cortés, and subsequent captivity and death are central to the conquest narrative. Often portrayed as indecisive or weak, but complex figure in a difficult situation.
Hernán Cortés: Spanish conquistador who led the expedition. Skilled military leader, strategist, and politician. Ruthless and ambitious, but also adaptable and charismatic.
Cuauhtémoc: Last Aztec Emperor, nephew of Moctezuma. Led the defense of Tenochtitlan during the siege. Symbol of Aztec resistance. Tortured and later executed by the Spanish.
La Malinche (Doña Marina): Indigenous woman, interpreter, advisor, and mistress to Cortés. Controversial figure, seen as a traitor by some, but crucial for Spanish success.
Indigenous Allies (Tlaxcalans, etc.): Essential for Spanish victory. Motivated by resentment of Aztec rule and desire for autonomy. Their role is increasingly recognized as crucial in understanding the conquest.
6. Key Themes:
Cultural Clash and Misunderstanding: Dramatic encounter between two vastly different cultures, leading to misunderstandings, misinterpretations, and conflict. Religious and social values clashed significantly.
Imperialism and Colonialism: Spanish conquest is a key example of European imperialism and the establishment of colonial rule in the Americas. Driven by economic and political motives, and justified by religious and racial ideologies.
Military Conquest and Technological Advantage: Spanish military technology, though not overwhelmingly superior in every aspect, provided a significant advantage, especially in initial encounters and siege warfare.
Disease and Demographic Collapse: Disease played a devastating role, weakening Aztec society and contributing to Spanish victory. Demographic collapse had long-lasting consequences for indigenous populations.
Transformation of Aztec Society: Conquest led to the destruction of Aztec empire and a profound transformation of Mesoamerican society, economy, religion, and culture under Spanish colonial rule.