Chapter 11 Lesson 1: Thinking and Problem Solving Study Guide

The Nature and Definition of Thinking

  • Fundamental Concept: Thinking is categorized as the process of changing and reorganizing information stored in memory to create new or transformed information.
  • Stimuli for Thought: Thinking processes can be triggered by either internal stimuli (thoughts, memories) or external stimuli (sensory inputs from the environment).
  • Linguistic Perspective: Some psychologists define thinking specifically as the stringing together of linguistic elements. This enables humans to combine words from memory to create unique sentences never heard before.
  • Psychological Focus: The psychology of thinking often centers on activities associated with inventors and mathematicians. There is no single agreed-upon approach among psychologists:   - Cognitive Approach: Views thinking as a process involving the way individuals view and relate to the world.   - Behavioral Approach: Views thinking as internal problem-solving behavior.

Basic Units of Thought

Thinking depends on several building blocks or "units of thought" that provide an economical way to represent and manipulate reality:

  • Images: A visual, mental representation of a specific event or object.   - Images are rarely exact copies; they usually contain only the highlights or specific details of the original (e.g., remembering only the hair color or jewelry of a deceased grandmother rather than a full portrait).   - Research Study: Researchers presented participants with 1,6001,600 pairs of geometric images. Participants had to determine if the objects in each pair were identical. The study found that participants solved this by mentally rotating one object to see both patterns from the same perspective.
  • Symbols: A sound, object, or design that represents an object or quality.   - Unlike images (which represent specific sights/sounds), symbols can have multiple meanings.   - Words are the most common symbols.   - Symbols allow humans to think about things not present, consider the past or future, and imagine non-existent situations.   - Examples include numerals, letters, punctuation marks, and icons.
  • Concepts: When a symbol acts as a label for a class of objects or events sharing at least one common attribute.   - Examples: "animals," "music," "liquid," and "beautiful people."   - Functions as a method to "chunk" information, so every new item does not need to be treated as unique.
  • Prototypes: A representative example of a concept.   - When thinking of a concept like "vehicle," one might picture a car or truck.   - A prototype is not necessarily an example one has experienced; it is an example that possesses most characteristics of the concept.
  • Rules: A statement of a relationship between concepts.   - Examples: "A person cannot be in two places at the same time," or "Mass remains constant despite changes in appearance."   - Rules are critical for the process of problem solving.

Categories and Kinds of Thinking

  • Reasoning: The act of bringing together results from two or more learning experiences to reach a goal.   - Deductive Reasoning (Deduction): A "top-down," schema-driven approach working from general to specific.     - Example: All mammals have DNA. Sheep are mammals. Therefore, sheep have DNA.   - Inductive Reasoning (Induction): A "bottom-up" approach working from specific observations to broader generalizations.     - Example: Sheep, pigs, and horses are mammals and have DNA; therefore, all mammals likely have DNA. Conclusions are probable but may require investigation.
  • Directed Thinking: A systematic, logical, deliberate, and purposeful attempt to reach a specific goal or answer (e.g., solving a math problem). It relies heavily on symbols, concepts, and rules.
  • Problem Solving Types:   - Divergent Thinking: Trying to generate a variety of alternative solutions (creative thinking/flexibility). An essay test is an example.   - Convergent Thinking: Narrowing down possibilities to find the one best answer. A multiple-choice test is an example.
  • Undirected (Nondirected) Thinking: A free flow of thoughts with no specific plan, depending heavily on images, feelings, daydreams, and fantasies.   - Often used during relaxation or boredom, it can provide unexpected insights into goals and beliefs.
  • Decision Making: A form of realistic thinking resulting in a judgment.   - Accuracy improves with the amount of information available.   - Impairment in making sound judgments is a symptom of Alzheimer’s disease (dementia).
  • Metacognition: Defined as "thinking about thinking." It involves the ability to control and monitor cognitive processes.   - Examples: Evaluating the validity of a judgment, changing strategies when an algebra problem remains unsolved, or measuring progress toward a task.

Strategies for Problem Solving

Problem solving is the mental bridge between a present situation and a desired goal.

  • Basic Procedure:   1. Define the problem.   2. Come up with alternatives (Brainstorming: throwing out all ideas regardless of how ridiculous they seem).   3. Evaluate alternatives and select the best one.   4. Put the solution into action.
  • Subgoals: Breaking a complex problem into smaller, intermediate steps. (e.g., breaking a busy semester schedule into specific study sessions and task completions).
  • Working Backward: Starting from the goal and tracing back to the beginning. Mystery writers use this by deciding "who did it" before writing the plot.
  • Analyzing Reaching a Goal: Examining various paths.   - Example: A woman needing to be in Chicago by 11:00 A.M.11:00\,A.M. on July 7 for a business conference might evaluate trains (arrives at 5:00 A.M.5:00\,A.M., too early) and planes (arrives at 11:30 A.M.11:30\,A.M., too late) before deciding to rent a car.
  • Algorithms vs. Heuristics:   - Algorithm: A fixed set of procedures that lead to a solution if followed correctly (e.g., math formulas, chess rules).     - Example: Multiplying 345×23345 \times 23 according to rules yields exactly 7,9357,935.   - Heuristics: Experimental "rules of thumb" or shortcuts that allow for quick solutions.     - Example: Using knowledge of prefixes/suffixes to solve Wheel of Fortune puzzles.     - Risk: May result in bad decisions if pertinent information is ignored.

Obstacles to Problem Solving and Decision Making

  • Mental Set: A habit of treating problems in a certain way (e.g., a chess player always trying to control the center four squares).
  • Rigidity: When a mental set interferes with the ability to solve a problem.   - Functional Fixedness: Inability to imagine new uses for familiar objects (e.g., only seeing a brick for construction rather than a paperweight).   - Wrong Assumptions: Falsely assuming constraints (e.g., trying to arrange six matches into four equilateral triangles while assuming the solution must stay two-dimensional).   - Direct Method Bias: Looking only for direct solutions and failing to see intermediate steps.
  • Decision-Making Obstacles: Procrastination, avoidance, fear of failure, or a lack of understanding regarding the choices.

Computers and Technology in Problem Solving

  • IBM’s Watson:   - Famous for defeating Jeopardy! players.   - Used by Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center to treat cancer. Watson is fed textbooks and medical records.   - Advantage: The head of breast cancer programs noted, "Watson doesn’t forget anything."   - Processing: Computers rely on algorithms with blazing speed; they do not need heuristics.
  • Human-Computer Collaboration:   - Foldit: An online game where thousands of gamers work with computers to fold 3D protein structures.   - Outcome: Humans are currently better than computers at predicting protein shapes.

Creative Thinking

  • Definition: Using information such that the result is new, original, and meaningful.
  • The Creative Process (Five-Phase Theory):   1. Preparation: Gathering information.   2. Incubation: Processing information (consciously or unconsciously) and defining the problem.   3. Illumination: The moment "pieces fall into place."   4. Verification: Evaluating and adjusting the results.
  • Flexibility: The ability to overcome rigidity. Measured by tests asking for infinite uses for a single object (e.g., a paper clip).
  • Recombination: A new mental arrangement of familiar elements.   - Example: Football and basketball involve recombinations of established moves.   - Sir Isaac Newton noted his discoveries were made by "standing on the shoulders of giants," meaning he recombined the work of previous scientists.
  • Insight: The "aha" experience; the sudden emergence of a solution through recombination, often occurring after a period of frustration and abandonment of the task.   - Animal Study (Wolfgang Köhler): A chimpanzee in a cage wanted bananas out of reach. After failing and staring ahead (incubation), it suddenly jumped up and stacked wooden boxes to reach the fruit.