Notes on the Roman Republic

The first Roman census was ordered by Servius Tullius around 570 BC.
A census was conducted every five years, symbolizing Rome's move from barbarianism to civilization.
The Roman government used the census to assess military strength and income through taxes.
Roman society was hierarchical; social level and gender determined rights and freedoms.
- Women were not considered full citizens.
As early as 753 BCE, Roman men were grouped into three categories:
- Citizens
- Part-Citizens
- Non-Citizens
As Rome expanded, communities in Latium, Italy, were given most rights of Roman citizenship, excluding the right to vote unless they moved to Rome.
Socii (allies) paid taxes or provided military service but had no voting rights.
In 90 BCE, the socii rebelled and gained the right to vote.

The Republic was multicultural, containing people of various ethnic backgrounds and religions due to continuous invasions and takeovers.
The Republic was multilingual; Latin was the official language, with Greek being widely used, and many other languages also spoken.

Patricians (Upper Class)
- Wealthy landowners.
- Held hereditary powerful government positions.
- Became senators, magistrates, and governors in provinces.
Equestrians (Middle Class)
- Rich merchants and businessmen.
- Served in the army in positions of command.
- Controlled law courts and collected taxes.
- Held government administration jobs and could become senators.
Plebeians (Lower Class)
- Poor people in towns and rural areas.
- Worked as craftsmen, shopkeepers, farmers, servants, stonecutters, bricklayers, skilled and unskilled workers.
Foreigners
- Free people born outside Rome.
Slaves
- People brought back to Rome from conquered lands.
- Could be sold in marketplaces.
- Often well-educated; if educated, used as teachers.

Lucius Tarquinius, the last king of Rome, was considered cruel, proud, and ambitious.
- He murdered or exiled anyone suspected of trying to take his position and confiscated property.
In 509 BC, after 25 years of rule, an uprising occurred against him.
- The queen and princes fled; his son Sextus was killed.
- Tarquinius was refused entry back into Rome, ending the monarchy.
Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus led the uprising and became the first consuls of the new Republic.

Around 640 BC, King Ancus Marcus built a prison to lock away criminals.
Strangulation in a public place was a common punishment.
Traitors and murderers were considered the worst prisoners.
- They were thrown to their deaths from the Tarpeian Rock.
- The mentally ill and disabled were also thrown off the Tarpeian Rock, as they were thought to be cursed by the gods.

The expression 'tall poppy' originates from Lucius Tarquinius, who cut off the heads of the tallest poppies to symbolize that those who stood out should be killed.
Sextus used this message to kill important people in a conquered city.
Today, a 'tall poppy' refers to someone successful who is resented or envied.

According to the Roman historian Livy, Tarquinius violated the custom of consulting the senate.
He administered state business with only his friends, contracting and dissolving war, peace, treaties, and alliances without the people's or senate's approval.

Made up of 300 wealthy citizens called patricians.
Membership was a lifetime appointment.
Controlled the spending of government money on public works.
Maintained towns and cities.
Advised government officials and the consuls.
Discussed political issues and could suggest new laws.
Discussed laws made by Assemblies and could pass or veto them, but could not pass new laws themselves.

Had the final say about new laws, verdicts, punishments, declarations of war, and relations with non-Roman entities.
Responsible for the census.
Comprised many different assemblies and councils, including:
- Assembly of Centuries
  - Represented centuries, which were geographic areas, each with its own assembly.
- Plebeian Council
  - Consisted of non-patrician citizens of Rome.
  - Passed the majority of laws.
- Assembly of Tribes
  - Consisted of representatives of each of the 35 geographic areas of Rome.
  - Was an assembly for discussion with little power.

The Roman Republic began in 509 BC as a reaction to the harsh rule of Tarquinius.
- Established a new system of government with shared power among consuls, the Senate, and the Assemblies.
- Lasted for 482 years.
The republican government implemented a system of checks and balances.
- Power was distributed among three groups: consuls, Senate, and Assemblies.
- Assemblies made laws, the Senate approved or disapproved them, and the consuls supervised both.
The two consuls held equal power, dividing leadership to avoid sole control.
- They held power for only one year, after which new consuls were elected by citizens from the Senate.
The Romans established a constitution that set out guidelines for their system of government.
- The constitution was spoken, not written, and changed in response to demands from different groups.
Plebeians (poor Romans) influenced the Roman constitution through actions between 494 BC and 297 BC.
- Their demands for a say in government and better living conditions led to the Struggle of the Orders.
SPQR (Senatus Populusque Romanus), meaning "The Senate and the people of Rome," was the motto of the Roman Republic.
- Appeared on coins, banners, buildings, and drain covers.
- Still the motto of the city of Rome today, found on the city's coat of arms and government buildings.

The late Republic period was unsettled, marked by power struggles and shifting loyalties.
The First Triumvirate included Julius Caesar, a wealthy patrician.
- Power struggles led to its dissolution and violent deaths of members.
In 49 BC, Julius Caesar became the most powerful man in Rome, declaring himself consul and dictator for life.
- He was assassinated in 44 BC due to fears of his excessive power and desire to be king.
After Caesar's death, power struggles continued until Octavian declared himself the first emperor of Rome in 31 BC, marking the beginning of the Roman Empire.
- Octavian was Caesar's great-nephew and adopted son.
Rome had been building an empire before 31 BC; the change was in the title of the ruler.
Caesar, as the last consul, and Octavian, as the first emperor, had similar power; only their titles changed.
Key events during the transition:
- 60 BC: The First Triumvirate is formed by Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey.
- Caesar is elected consul and invades France, then Britain, in 54 BC.
- Caesar's military successes are seen as a threat by Crassus and Pompey.
- Civil war breaks out between supporters of Caesar and Pompey.