An Ultra Handout on the Intensive Review of English Grammar and Composition

TOPIC 1: FIVE MACRO-SKILLS

  • Definition and Importance of Macro Skills

    • Language learning is not limited to knowing grammar rules and vocabulary.

    • Effective communication requires the development of five essential abilities known as the macro skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Viewing.

    • These skills enable learners to understand and produce meaning across different modes of communication and real-life contexts.

    • Together, they support holistic language competence and communicative effectiveness.

  • Listening

    • Definition: The ability to accurately receive, interpret, and understand spoken language.

    • Scope: It involves hearing sounds and processing meaning, tone, intention, and context.

    • Foundational Role: According to Brown (2007), listening is a foundational skill that provides input supporting the development of other skills, especially speaking.

    • Requirements: Effective listening requires concentration, background knowledge, and the ability to infer meaning from verbal and nonverbal cues.

    • Applications: Crucial in academic and professional settings such as lectures, discussions, meetings, and interviews.

  • Speaking

    • Definition: The productive skill of expressing ideas, thoughts, and emotions orally.

    • Components: Involves pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency, and appropriateness to context.

    • Communicative Competence: Harmer (2015) emphasizes that speaking is central because it allows learners to actively participate in social interaction.

    • Modes: Can be formal (speeches, presentations) or informal (conversations, interviews).

    • Adjustment: Effective speakers adjust language based on audience, purpose, and situation.

  • Reading

    • Definition: The ability to comprehend written texts by constructing meaning from printed or digital symbols.

    • Process: Involves decoding, vocabulary recognition, and higher-order thinking skills such as analyzing, inferring, and evaluating ideas.

    • Interactive Nature: Grabe and Stoller (2011) describe reading as an interactive process between the reader and the text, influenced by prior knowledge and purpose.

    • Role: Essential for academic learning, research, and information literacy in the digital age.

  • Writing

    • Definition: The productive skill of conveying ideas through organized and coherent written language.

    • Requirements: Requires control of grammar, vocabulary, sentence structure, and discourse organization.

    • Dual Nature: Hyland (2016) notes writing is both a cognitive and social process, considering audience, purpose, and context.

    • Applications: Used in academic (essays, reports), professional (emails), and personal (creative texts) communication.

  • Viewing

    • Definition: The ability to interpret and make meaning from visual and multimedia texts such as images, videos, infographics, films, and digital content.

    • Significance: A vital macro skill due to the rise of digital media.

    • Media Literacy: Rosenblatt (2005) and UNESCO (2013) highlight that viewing supports media literacy by helping learners critically analyze visual messages.

    • Critical Thinking: Requires evaluating the credibility, purpose, and impact of visual information.

  • Integration of Macro Skills

    • The five macro skills are interrelated and interdependent.

    • Example: A student may listen to a lecture, read supporting texts, view a presentation, speak during a discussion, and write a reflection.

    • Instructional Goal: Richards (2008) states that effective language instruction integrates these skills to reflect authentic communication.

TOPIC 2: PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR VS. DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR

  • Prescriptive Grammar

    • Definition: An approach that sets rules and standards for how a language should be used, particularly in formal contexts.

    • Focus: Correctness, appropriateness, and adherence to established norms.

    • Function: Judged usage as right or wrong based on style guides and textbooks.

    • Scholarly Perspectives:

      • David Crystal (2006): Concerned with "laying down rules for the correct or proper use of language."

      • Sidney Greenbaum (1996): Specifies "how language ought to be used."

      • Kolln and Funk (2012): Helpful in maintaining consistency and shared standards in academic/professional writing.

    • Characteristics: Emphasizes rules, distinguishes standard from nonstandard, common in exams/education.

  • Descriptive Grammar

    • Definition: An approach that describes how language is actually used by speakers and writers without prescribing rules.

    • Observation: Records patterns in everyday communication, including informal and nonstandard varieties.

    • Scholarly Perspectives:

      • David Crystal (2006): Aims to describe the system as it is used without judging forms.

      • Huddleston and Pullum (2002): Focuses on native speakers' intuitive knowledge and authentic contexts.

      • George Yule (2017): Explains language variation, change, and real communicative practices.

    • Characteristics: Focuses on actual use, accepts variation/change, avoids judging "right/wrong," values spoken/informal language.

  • Descriptive Grammar Case Study: Alex and Mang Jun

    • Scenario: Alex (native speaker) asks for directions to the library from Mang Jun (street vendor).

    • Dialogue Highlights:

      • Mang Jun: "You go straight only, no turning first."

      • Mang Jun: "You jump the car, sir. Any one okay…"

      • Mang Jun: "When you see big old building… you jump outside already."

      • Alex: "Jump?"

      • Mang Jun: "Easy lang, sir."

    • Analysis: This demonstrates descriptive grammar where meaning is conveyed effectively through nonstandard variations (e.g., using "jump" instead of "board" or "alight").

TOPIC 3: NOUNS

  • Definition: A word that names a person, place, thing, idea, or concept. Nouns act as subjects, objects, or complements (Azar & Hagen, 2016).

  • Kinds of Nouns

    • Proper Nouns: Specific names (capitalized). Examples: Maria, Philippines, UNESCO, World War II.

    • Common Nouns: General names (not capitalized unless starting a sentence). Examples: teacher, school, car, happiness.

    • Concrete Nouns: Perceived through five senses. Examples: Apple (taste), Dog (touch), Music (hearing).

    • Abstract Nouns: Ideas, emotions, or qualities. Examples: Love, anger, truth, bravery, wisdom.

    • Countable Nouns: Can be counted individually; have singular/plural forms. Examples: book/books, apple/apples.

    • Mass Nouns (Uncountable): Substances or concepts that cannot be counted individually. Measured using units. Examples: water, sugar, rice, information, furniture. (Incorrect: many waters; Correct: a glass of water).

    • Collective Nouns: Name a group considered as a single unit. Examples: Team, family, flock, jury, army.

    • Compound Nouns: Formed by combining words.

      • Open: post office, ice cream.

      • Closed: toothpaste, notebook.

      • Hyphenated: mother-in-law, editor-in-chief.

    • Gender Nouns:

      • Feminine: actress, queen, mother.

      • Masculine: actor, king, father.

      • Common: student, child, doctor.

      • Neuter: table, car, computer.

  • Functions of Nouns

    • Subject: Performs the action. (e.g., "The dog barked.")

    • Vocative: Used to address someone directly. (e.g., "Maria, can you help?")

    • Appositive: Renames or explains a noun beside it. (e.g., "My brother, a doctor, works in Manila.")

    • Direct Object: Receives the action. (e.g., "She kicked the ball.")

    • Indirect Object: Indicates to/for whom an action is done. (e.g., "I gave my friend a gift.")

    • Subject Complement: Follows a linking verb and renames the subject. (e.g., "She is a teacher.")

    • Object Complement: Follows the direct object and describes it. (e.g., "They elected him president.")

    • Object of the Preposition: Follows a preposition. (e.g., "The cat is under the table.")

TOPIC 4: PRONOUNS

  • Definition: Words that replace nouns or noun phrases to avoid repetition.

  • Kinds of Pronouns

    • Subjective: Subjects of sentences. (I, you, he, she, it, we, they).

    • Objective: Objects of verbs/prepositions. (me, you, him, her, it, us, them).

    • Possessive Pronouns: Show ownership, stand alone. (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs).

    • Possessive Adjectives: Describe whose noun it is; always followed by a noun. (my, your, his, her, its, our, their).

    • Indefinite: Refer to general/non-specific entities. (someone, everyone, each, few, many, all).

    • Reflexive: End in -self/-selves; refer back to the subject. (myself, himself, themselves).

    • Demonstrative: Point to specific things (near/far). (this, that, these, those).

    • Interrogative: Ask questions. (who, whom, whose, which, what).

    • Relative: Introduce relative clauses. (who, whom, whose, which, that).

TOPIC 5: VERBS AND SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT (SVA)

  • Verb Types

    • Action Verbs: Physical/mental actions (run, think, eat).

    • Linking Verbs: Connect subject to more information (am, is, are, was, were).

    • Helping Verbs (Auxiliary): Work with main verbs to show tense/mood. (Be, Have, Do, Modals like will/can).

    • Regular Verbs: Past tense adds -ed/-d (walk -> walked).

    • Irregular Verbs: Change form for past tense (go -> went, swim -> swam).

    • Transitive Verbs: Require a direct object (She kicked the ball).

    • Intransitive Verbs: No direct object required (He sleeps).

    • Infinitive Verbs: Base form preceded by "to" (to run, to study).

  • Subject-Verb Agreement Rules

    • Rule 1: Singular Subject + Singular Verb (ends in -s/-es). Example: "The wolf howls."

    • Rule 2: Plural Subject + Plural Verb (no -s/-es). Example: "Friends play."

    • Rule 3: Collective Nouns + Singular Verb. Example: "The team wins."

    • Rule 4: Mass Nouns + Singular Verb. Example: "Sugar is sweet."

    • Rule 4.1: Measured Mass Nouns. Verb agrees with the unit. Example: "Three boxes of cereal are…"

    • Rule 5: Special Nouns ending in -s (Mathematics, News) take singular verbs.

    • Rule 6: Nouns with two parts (scissors, pants, glasses) take plural verbs.

    • Rule 6.1: "Pair of" + Noun takes a singular verb. Example: "A pair of scissors is…"

    • Rule 7: Units of measurement/amounts take singular verbs. Example: "Five liters of water is…"

    • Rule 8: Indefinite Pronouns (Everyone, Each) take singular verbs.

    • Rule 9: "The number" (singular) vs. "A number" (plural).

    • Rule 10 (Proximity): With either…or/neither…nor, verb agrees with the closest subject.

    • Rule 11 (And): If "and" joins a single unit (Bread and butter), use singular. If joining different subjects, use plural.

    • Rule 12 (Interruption): Ignore phrases like "along with," "together with," "as well as." Verb agrees with the main subject.

TOPIC 6: TENSE AND ASPECT

  • Tense (The When)

    • Present: Actions happening now/regularly.

    • Past: Actions completed before now.

    • Future: Actions occurring later.

  • Aspect (The How)

    • Simple: Basic action.

    • Progressive (Continuous): Ongoing action.

    • Perfect: Completed action or relevance to another time.

    • Perfect Progressive: Started earlier and continued for a duration.

  • Detailed Tense Matrix

    • Simple Present: Habits/facts. (e.g., "She sings well.")

    • Simple Past: Completed action with time reference. (e.g., "He played yesterday.")

    • Simple Future: Planned actions. (e.g., "We will travel.")

    • Present Progressive: Happening right now (am/is/are + -ing). (e.g., "I am working.")

    • Past Progressive: Ongoing past action interrupted by another (was/were + -ing). (e.g., "I was watching TV when…")

    • Future Progressive: Ongoing at a specific future time. (e.g., "I will be studying at 8 PM.")

    • Present Perfect: Started past/continues now (has/have + past participle). (e.g., "She has lived here since 2015.")

    • Past Perfect: "Past before another past" (had + past participle). (e.g., "She had left before I arrived.")

    • Future Perfect: Completed before a future time (will have + past participle). (e.g., "I will have finished by 5 PM.")

    • Present Perfect Progressive: Duration since past to present (has/have been + -ing). (e.g., "She has been studying since 8 AM.")

    • Past Perfect Progressive: Duration before another past action (had been + -ing).

    • Future Perfect Progressive: Ongoing up to a certain future time (will have been + -ing).

TOPIC 7: ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

  • Adjective Order (DOSShACOM)

    • 1. Determiner (a, the, two)

    • 2. Opinion (beautiful)

    • 3. Size (small)

    • 4. Shape (round)

    • 5. Age (old)

    • 6. Color (red)

    • 7. Origin (Italian)

    • 8. Material (wooden)

    • Noun: table.

  • Adverb Kinds

    • Time: When? (yesterday, tomorrow).

    • Place: Where? (outside, here).

    • Manner: How? (beautifully, politely).

    • Degree: Intensity? (very, almost, extremely).

    • Frequency: How often? (always, rarely).

TOPIC 8: PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS

  • Prepositions of Time/Place

    • At: Exact time (7:00 AM); Specific address (Purok 5).

    • On: Days/Dates (Monday, Dec 10); Streets/Roads (Rizal Street).

    • In: Non-specific time/months/years (2005, the morning); Land areas/Cities/Countries (Manila, Philippines).

  • Conjunctions

    • Coordinating (FANBOYS): For (reason), And (addition), Nor (negative addition), But (contrast), Or (choice), Yet (surprise contrast), So (result).

    • Subordinating: Connects dependent to independent clauses (because, although, since, when, unless).

    • Correlative (Pairs): Either…or, Neither…nor, Both…and, Not only…but also.

TOPIC 9: FIGURES OF SPEECH

  • Simile: Comparison using "like" or "as."

  • Metaphor: Implied comparison without "like/as."

  • Personification: Giving human qualities to objects.

  • Onomatopoeia: Words imitative of sounds (buzz, splash, bang).

  • Hyperbole: Deliberate exaggeration (hungry enough to eat a cow).

  • Litotes: Understatement using negations of the opposite (not too difficult = easy).

  • Apostrophe: Addressing an absent person/object (O death).

  • Allusion: Indirect reference to history/literature (He met his Waterloo).

  • Irony:

    • Verbal: Saying the opposite of what is meant.

    • Situational: Outcome is opposite of expectation (Lifeguard drowning).

    • Dramatic: Audience knows more than characters.

  • Synecdoche: Part for whole (All hands on deck).

  • Metonymy: Word replaced by something associated (The crown = the king).

  • Paradox: Contradictory statement revealing deeper truth (Less is more).

  • Oxymoron: Two opposite words joined (Deafening silence).

  • Climax: Arrangement of ideas in increasing importance.

  • Anti-climax: Sequence ending in a trivial/humorous drop (He lost his family, his job, and his house plants).

QUESTIONS & DISCUSSION (REVIEW QUIZ SELECTION)

  • Q: Which macro skill is mainly used when analyzing charts/videos?

    • A: Viewing.

  • Q: Verb for "Everyone in the room ___ silent"?

    • A: is (Rule 8: Indefinite pronouns take singular verbs).

  • Q: Correct adjective order?

    • A: A small (Size) old (Age) wooden (Material) box.

  • Q: Figure of speech in "The city never sleeps"?

    • A: Personification.

  • Q: Transitive vs. Intransitive?

    • A: Transitive requires a direct object (e.g., "She kicked the ball"); Intransitive does not (e.g., "She arrived").

  • Q: "The news ___ shocking."?

    • A: is (Rule 5: news is singular).

  • Q: Figure of speech: "The test wasn't too hard."?

    • A: Litotes.

  • Q: Proximity rule example?

    • A: "Neither the manager nor the employees are available." (Closest subject "employees" is plural).