Gorbachev and the Years of Reform, 1985–89
Gorbachev and the Years of Reform (1985-1989)
Introduction
Gorbachev's Aims:
Establish and maintain a reformed socialist system, moving away from rigid central planning towards a more flexible, market-oriented approach.
Revitalize the CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union) by making it more responsive to the needs of the people and less bureaucratic.
Achieve these aims through comprehensive economic reforms (perestroika), greater freedoms of expression and information (glasnost), and political democratization (demokratizatsiya).
Ideological Inspiration:
Gorbachev sought to return to the early ideals of the Bolshevik Revolution under Lenin, emphasizing collective ownership but with decentralized control and local initiative.
He aimed to avoid the excesses of Stalinism, such as totalitarian repression and forced collectivization, as well as the perceived inequalities and exploitation of Western capitalism.
His vision was a 'self-managing socialism' with less state control over the economy, promoting worker participation and local decision-making.
Trotsky's Influence:
Many of Gorbachev's ideas resembled those of Leon Trotsky from the 1920s and 1930s, although Gorbachev rarely acknowledged this directly.
Examples include:
A new form of Lenin’s New Economic Policy (NEP), allowing for some private enterprise and market mechanisms within a socialist framework.
Returning parts of farming to family production, encouraging individual initiative and efficiency in agriculture.
Setting up genuine cooperatives in the service sectors to provide better goods and services to the population.
Like Gorbachev, Trotsky advocated for a reformed, efficient, and planned state sector to oversee these changes, ensuring overall economic stability and social justice.
Three Main Policies (1986):
Perestroika (Restructuring): Economic reforms aimed at modernizing the Soviet economic system to increase productivity, innovation, and efficiency. It involved decentralizing economic decision-making, introducing market mechanisms, and encouraging enterprise autonomy. It was also applied to political reform to modernize the USSR by reducing bureaucratic control and increasing accountability.
Glasnost (Openness): Greater transparency and openness in government policy and public discourse, allowing for more freedom of expression, access to information, and critical discussion of social and political issues. The aim was to foster greater public participation and accountability.
Demokratizatsiya (Democratization): Reforms to make the Soviet system more democratic by introducing competitive elections, increasing the power of elected bodies, and reducing the dominance of the Communist Party in government affairs.
Foreign Policy: Gorbachev adopted a 'New Thinking' approach:
Improve international relations by de-emphasizing ideological conflict, promoting cooperation, and seeking peaceful resolutions to international disputes.
End the Soviet presence in Afghanistan through a negotiated withdrawal, recognizing the futility of military intervention and the need for a political settlement.
Loosen the Soviet Union’s control over, and economic support of, Eastern European states to cut costs and modernize the Soviet economy, allowing these countries to pursue their own paths to reform and development.
Timeline
1985
March: Gorbachev becomes General-Secretary of the CPSU, marking a significant shift in Soviet leadership; Ryzhkov becomes prime minister; Gorbachev abandons the Brezhnev Doctrine, signaling a new approach to Eastern Europe.
June: Gorbachev informs Central Committee of economic problems, highlighting the need for urgent reforms.
July: Romanov sacked, consolidating Gorbachev's power and removing potential opposition.
December: Grishin replaced by Yeltsin as party boss of Moscow, indicating a changing of the guard and the rise of reformist figures.
1986
February/March: 27th Congress of CPSU; official launch of perestroika, outlining the vision for economic restructuring; Twelfth Five-Year Plan, setting ambitious economic targets.
April: Chernobyl disaster, exposing the lack of transparency and safety in Soviet industry.
November: Law on Individual Labour Activity, legalizing certain forms of private enterprise.
December: Law on Joint Enterprises, allowing foreign investment in the Soviet economy.
1987
January: Central Committee agrees on limited competitive elections, a step towards political democratization.
May: Law on State Enterprises, granting greater autonomy to state-owned firms.
June: First competitive elections in some areas, testing the waters for wider democratic participation.
October: Solidarity re-forms in Poland, challenging the communist regime and inspiring other dissident movements.
1988
January: Central Committee extends competitive elections to all soviets; Law on State Enterprises comes into effect; Gorbachev announces withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan, signaling a shift in foreign policy.
February: Afghanistan withdrawal, ending a costly and unpopular military intervention.
April: Geneva Conference, furthering arms control negotiations with the United States.
May: Law on Cooperatives; Grosz replaces Kadar in Hungary; Moscow summit, improving relations with the West.
June: 19th Party Conference, a key event in promoting political and economic reforms.
July: Strikes by miners in Kuzbass region, highlighting growing social and economic discontent.
December: Congress of People’s Deputies votes for Abalkin Programme of economic reforms; Electoral Law, paving the way for more democratic elections.
1989
March/April: Elections for new Congress of People’s Deputies, resulting in a more diverse and representative legislature.
April: Nationalist unrest in Georgia, reflecting rising ethnic tensions within the Soviet Union.
May: First meeting of new CPD and Supreme Soviet, marking a new era of political debate and participation.
November: GDR opens Berlin Wall, symbolizing the collapse of the Eastern Bloc and the end of the Cold War.
Key Questions
What were Gorbachev’s main economic policies, 1985–89, and how did they aim to reform the Soviet economy?
How did Gorbachev try to democratise the Soviet political system, and what were the main features of his political reforms?
What were the main consequences of Gorbachev’s foreign policy during the 1980s, both for the Soviet Union and for international relations?
Overview of Gorbachev’s Reforms
Economic Reform (Perestroika):
Launched in 1986 to restructure the Soviet economy, addressing issues such as inefficiency, lack of innovation, and poor quality goods. It involved decentralizing decision-making, introducing market mechanisms, and promoting enterprise autonomy.
Faced challenges due to economic decline, bureaucratic resistance, and political opposition from conservative elements within the Communist Party.
Political Programs (Glasnost and Demokratizatsiya):
Implemented alongside perestroika to increase transparency, accountability, and public participation in government affairs.
Aimed to separate party and state bodies, introducing more democracy into the CPSU and reducing its dominance over society.
Conservative opponents feared the reforms would lead to the break-up of the Soviet Union and the loss of Communist Party control.
Nationalist Unrest:
Emerged in many Soviet republics, fueled by ethnic tensions, economic grievances, and demands for greater autonomy or independence. Became significant by 1989, posing a major challenge to the integrity of the Soviet Union.
'New Thinking' in Foreign Policy:
Applied from 1985, abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine in Eastern Europe and promoting peaceful resolution of international disputes. It also emphasized cooperation and mutual security, rather than ideological confrontation.
Encouraged Communist leaders in Eastern Europe to adopt economic and political reforms, but without direct Soviet interference. The aim was to create a more stable and cooperative international environment.
Developments in Eastern Europe:
Significant moves began in 1987, with some Eastern European countries experimenting with market reforms and greater political openness.
By 1989, many Eastern European leaders had been replaced by reform Communists, who were more willing to embrace change and engage with the opposition.
Rapid pace of change led to revolutions rather than reforms, as popular discontent with communist rule grew and mass protests erupted across the region.
By the end of 1989, many governments had stepped down (or been overthrown) due to mass protests, marking the end of the Communist era in Eastern Europe.
Gorbachev’s Main Economic Policies (1985–89)
Achievements of the Centralized Economy (by mid-1980s):
Full employment was a major achievement, ensuring that virtually everyone had a job, although often with low pay and limited opportunities for advancement.
Cheap housing, fuel, and transport were heavily subsidized, making them affordable for most citizens, although often of poor quality and in short supply.
Subsidized food prices kept the cost of basic foodstuffs low, but led to shortages and inefficiencies in the agricultural sector.
Underlying Problems:
Declining GNP (Gross National Product) growth rate, averaging 2% annually by 1985, was insufficient to meet consumer expectations and maintain the Soviet Union's global status. The rate declined from 5% in 1965 to 3.75% in 1975, and 2.5% in 1980.
Rising consumer demands amidst economic stagnation created widespread frustration and discontent, as people aspired to a better standard of living but saw little improvement in their daily lives.
Labor shortages, low productivity, and poor-quality goods plagued the Soviet economy, hindering its ability to compete with Western economies.
Minimum Growth Requirements:
Estimated 4% to 4.5% (or 3% according to some) annual growth was necessary to fulfill key objectives:
Investment to improve industrialization and modernization, upgrading infrastructure and technology to boost productivity.
Military spending to maintain ‘parity’ with the West, sustaining the Soviet Union's military strength and influence in global affairs.
Improving living standards, providing better housing, food, healthcare, education, and consumer goods for the population.
Failure to meet these objectives threatened the USSR's ability to maintain its status achieved since 1953, undermining its legitimacy and stability.
Historians' Views:
Jacques Sapir and Abel Aganbegyan believed official figures understated the real economic decline, masking the severity of the problems facing the Soviet economy.
Aganbegyan estimated the annual growth rate during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (1980–85) was zero, indicating a period of stagnation and decline.
Figure 7.1: Abel Aganbegyan’s statistics on the growth of the Soviet Union’s national revenue, 1966–85; the adjusted figure takes account of price rises.
Gorbachev’s Ideas and First Steps
Objectives: Gorbachev and reformist sections aimed to overcome economic stagnation and technological decline through modernization, innovation, and greater efficiency.
Support Base: The reformist section of the party enjoyed support from Aganbegyan and Tatiana Zaslavskaya, who had been arguing about fundamental problems in the Soviet economy and advocating for radical reforms.
Limited and Vague Proposals: Like earlier suggestions put forward under Khrushchev and Kosygin, most of her reform proposals were limited and vague, lacking a clear vision and concrete implementation plans.
Wider Support: Scientists, technical specialists, and intellectuals also supported Gorbachev's attempts, seeking greater contact with the West and opportunities to increase income.
Resistance: Bureaucracy, especially the nomenklatura, resisted radical changes that undermined their power and privileges, fearing the loss of their status and control.
Political Maneuvering:
Gorbachev moved supporters into the Politburo, including Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov, strengthening his power base and promoting his reform agenda.
Ligachev was later replaced by Alexander Yakovlev after opposing Gorbachev, consolidating Gorbachev's control over ideological matters.
Grigori Romanov was sacked in July 1985, and Viktor Grishin was replaced by Boris Yeltsin as head of the Moscow party, signaling a changing of the guard and the rise of reformist figures.
Uskorenie (Acceleration)
Emphasis on modernization for rational investment use, channeling resources into key sectors and industries to boost economic growth.
From 1985 to 1986, sought to increase production by improving efficiency in the existing system, rather than introducing radical reforms.
Called for greater administrative efficiency from managers to meet the Twelfth Five-Year Plan targets (1986–90), setting ambitious goals for economic growth and development.
Perestroika (1986–89)
Official Launch: Gorbachev officially launched perestroika in 1986, aiming to reduce centralized planning and increase self-management at local enterprise levels, and announcing the end of subsidised prices.
27th Congress of the CPSU (February 1986):
Lack of precise details initially, creating confusion and uncertainty among economic managers and workers.
Gorbachev warned administrators against a ‘wait and see’ approach, urging them to embrace change and implement the new reforms.
Factory and farm managers gained more autonomy in production and employment decisions, but often lacked the skills and resources to make effective use of their new powers.
Self-financing was phased in from 1987 to 1989, with enterprises covering costs from profits, but many struggled to adapt to the new market conditions.
Economic Difficulties (April 1987):
Prime Minister Ryzhkov reported declining economic growth, highlighting the challenges facing the Soviet economy.
Drop in world oil and gas prices led to increased foreign debt and a large budget deficit, growing from 3% of national income in 1985 to 14% in 1989, straining the Soviet Union's financial resources.
Re-Privatization:
Gorbachev began significant reforms in agriculture and service industries, effectively re-privatizing some sectors and encouraging private enterprise.
Encouraged private production on kolkhozy (cooperative) and sovkhozy (state-run) farms, giving farmers greater incentives to increase output.
Private plots and cooperatives accounted for 25% of agricultural production, demonstrating the potential of private enterprise in the agricultural sector.
Law on Individual Labour Activity (November 1986) allowed private enterprise in the service sector, such as private taxi services, promoting greater competition and innovation.
Further legislation came in May 1987, expanding the scope of private enterprise in the Soviet economy.
Heavy Industry: Gorbachev aimed to create a modern, efficient socialist economy, not to restore capitalism, emphasizing innovation, technology, and productivity.
Obstacles: Conservative hardliners and bureaucrats often blocked or weakened reforms, fearing the loss of their power and privileges.
He attempted to reduce the number of industrial ministries and state committees to six or seven ‘super-ministries’, streamlining bureaucracy and improving efficiency.
Law on Joint Enterprises (December 1986) aimed to attract foreign investment, but faced problems due to confusion and corruption, deterring many potential investors.
Reducing State Control
Shift in Priorities: In 1988, Aganbegyan argued for a fundamental shift in Soviet priorities, including:
Social provision (housing, food supplies, health and education), improving living standards and reducing social inequality.
Improved industrial technology and efficiency, modernizing the Soviet economy and boosting productivity.
Reforms in the management of large enterprises, decentralizing decision-making and promoting greater autonomy.
Political Implications: Moves away from strict central control had political implications due to the close relationship between the state and the Communist Party, potentially undermining the party's authority and power.
Concerns: Some Soviet political commentators feared Gorbachev’s reforms could lead to the re-emergence of capitalism, reversing the gains of the socialist revolution.
They echoed Trotsky’s warnings that the Soviet Union was a transitional society that would either return to private enterprise or forge a stronger drive to socialism.
Trotsky: 1972, The Revolution Betrayed: What is the Soviet Union and Where is it Going?, New York, Pathfinder Press, pp. 47, 254 and 285–6.
Law on State Enterprises (January 1988):
Transferred 60% of state enterprises from central control to management control, giving managers greater autonomy in decision-making.
Enterprises could set prices and trade with other firms, introducing market mechanisms into the Soviet economy.
In 1989, the remaining 40% of state enterprises were similarly released from central control, completing the decentralization process.
Law on Cooperatives (May 1988):
Expanded on the 1986 Law on Individual Activity, allowing for a wider range of private enterprise.
Allowed small and medium-sized private cooperative enterprises to operate in manufacturing and foreign trade, promoting competition and innovation.
Obstructions: There was bureaucratic obstruction and lack of funds, as these businesses were not entitled to state subsidies, faced tight employment restrictions, and heavy taxes.
Agriculture: Gorbachev continued privatization efforts by allowing long-term leases on collective land, though ownership remained with the state. Collective farm managers were often reluctant to lease land.
Extracts from Gorbachev’s address to the 19th Party Conference, Moscow, June 1988.
Economic Decline:
By the end of 1988, rationing was brought in for certain foods, reflecting growing shortages and economic instability.
In July 1989, miners in the Kuzbass region went on strike in protest against shortages, demanding better working conditions and a free trade union, highlighting social and economic discontent.
Striking miners, Kuzbass, July 1989.
Advances in medical care reduced infant mortality by 10% in the late 1980s, these successes went largely unpublicized.
Workers felt their living conditions worsened due to perestroika, leading to unrest, instability, and economic slowdown.
Democratization of the Soviet Political System
Separation of Powers: Gorbachev separated the posts of president and head of the party, unlike under Brezhnev, reducing the concentration of power in one individual.
Political Reforms: Gorbachev considered political policies as necessary preconditions for economic reforms, stimulating public pressure to overcome conservative opponents.
Theory of Knowledge History, language and meaning.
Gradual Reforms: Initially limited to avoid upsetting the party apparatus, gradually expanding the scope of political change.
Far-reaching Political Reforms: From 1986, as perestroika failed to benefit the mass of Soviet workers immediately, Gorbachev pushed for political reforms to ‘sweeten’ economic changes.
Twin Policies: The reforms were built on glasnost and demokratizatsiya.
Glasnost: Greater openness in government policy, allowing criticism of the CPSU leadership and government policies, fostering a more transparent and accountable political system.
Demokratizatsiya: Making the Soviet system more democratic by reforming election procedures, allowing political clubs outside party control, and making the state more independent of party control.
Political Risks: Gorbachev’s reform program was linked to his economic reforms but faced risks of nationalist tensions and potential instability, potentially undermining the Soviet Union's integrity.
Initial assessments: Commentators initially viewed Gorbachev as a progressive reformer who could preserve the Soviet Union through political revolution, requiring a popular and progressive Communist Party.
Potential Issues: Gorbachev and his supporters recognized the risks of shaking up Soviet society and the potential for events to escape their control, such as a Soviet version of the ‘Prague Spring'.
Outcome: The Soviet Union collapsed just six years after Gorbachev began his reforms, leading many historians to attribute the fall to political rather than economic factors.
Gorbachev’s Early Aims
Political Stability: When Gorbachev came to power in March 1985, there was no visible political crisis or significant internal opposition, creating an opportunity for gradual and controlled change.
Political Crisis: However, a crisis existed within the CPSU leadership due to fundamental differences over the path forward, highlighting the need for decisive action and reform.
Reform-minded Leaders: Gorbachev was one of several younger, reform-minded leaders who rose during the Brezhnev era, representing a new generation of Soviet politicians.
Importance of Politics: Politics was central to the planned economy, shaping economic policies and influencing resource allocation.
Incentives: The Soviet system, with full employment, needed positive incentives to encourage higher productivity, involving respect for the party leadership and faith in their economic management.
Need for Political Improvement: Gorbachev believed Soviet citizens needed more influence over governance because perestroika would have negative short-term economic effects, requiring greater public support and participation.
Agreement for Change: By 1985, sections of the leadership believed the old framework was bankrupt and change was needed to avert a catastrophe, creating a sense of urgency and momentum for reform.
Political Strategy: The strategy included:
Liberalization of the media and citizens’ right to criticize, promoting greater transparency and accountability.
Purging and modernization of the political apparatus, removing corrupt and incompetent officials.
Greater freedoms and flexibility for political institutions, promoting greater democracy and participation.
Threats: If the economy did not improve, the political process would be threatened, leaving Gorbachev without a socio-political base outside his bureaucratic supporters, undermining his reform efforts.
Challenge to Ideology: Gorbachev and his supporters' determination to challenge the ideological basis of the party and the state ultimately split the superstructure of the Soviet state, contributing to its collapse.
27th Congress of the CPSU: As early as February 1986, Gorbachev signaled his intentions, referencing Lenin’s struggles against the Bolshevik leadership, drawing parallels between his reform efforts and Lenin's revolutionary vision.
Ali, T., 1988, Revolution from Above: Where is the Soviet Union Going?, London, Hutchinson, pp. 5–6.
Glasnost
Meaning: 'Openness' and 'publicity,' aimed at governments explaining policies to the public, promoting greater transparency and accountability.
Initial Aim: Greater willingness to admit problems and allow ordinary people to voice concerns and criticisms to facilitate reform and increase popular support, fostering a more open and participatory political culture.
Chernobyl Disaster
April 26, 1986: A nuclear reactor exploded at Chernobyl in Ukraine, exposing the flaws and weaknesses of the Soviet system.
Lack of Transparency: Initial reports were suppressed, and the extent of the accident was not fully revealed, undermining public trust in the government.
Continuation of Glasnost
Media Freedom: Yakovlev gave the media greater freedom to publish critical commentaries, fostering a more diverse and independent media landscape.
Discussions: Television showed discussions in which people made criticisms to ministers who answered them, promoting greater accountability and transparency.
Relaxed censorship: Publishers were still required to ‘vet’ new works, but there was greater freedom of expression and creativity.
Legalization: Forbidden books were legalized, and press and films addressed contemporary social problems, fostering a more open and critical discussion of social issues.
Émigrés returned: The changed atmosphere led some émigrés to return, contributing to the cultural and intellectual revival of the Soviet Union.
State Archives Opening: Historians and the public were given access to information to re-examine aspects of Soviet history, promoting greater historical awareness and understanding.
Political Rehabilitation: Many former ‘enemies of the state’ were politically rehabilitated, recognizing the injustices of the past and promoting reconciliation.
Contemporary Liberalization: Sakharov was released from internal exile, but his support within the USSR was more limited than in the West.
Mixed Reaction: Intellectuals were pleased, but hardline conservatives objected to attacks on Stalin and Brezhnev, fearing social and political instability.
Demokratizatsiya
Program: To increase democracy in the USSR and marginalize opponents of economic reform, empowering the Soviet people and promoting greater participation in government affairs.
Opposition: Encountered opposition from the bureaucratic caste (the nomenklatura), who feared the loss of their power and privileges.
Power and Support: Gorbachev had a reasonable chance of success due to internal divisions within the bureaucracy and lack of popular support for the bureaucracy.
Deutscher, I., 1969, The Unfinished Revolution: Russia 1917–1967, Oxford, Oxford University Press , pp. 57–8.
Historians and the bureaucracy:
Diversity of Opinion: The diversity of opinion within the Soviet leadership after 1985 surprised some, but was less unexpected for those who saw it as a bureaucratic pluralist regime.
R. Daniels, S. Cohen, and J. F. Hough challenged the idea of the Soviet Union as a passive society dominated by a united elite.
Service, R., 2007, Comrades: Communism – A World History, London, Macmillan, pp. 451–2.
Gorbachev granted much power to the regions which had unforeseen effects.
Gorbachev’s Main Political Reforms (1986–89)
Aim: To reform the Soviet political system, focusing on party role, electoral and legislative systems, and executive and administrative bodies.
27th Congress of the CPSU (February–March 1986) Pushing Ahead:
Announced intention to push ahead with party reform where the Congress gave a larger role to the Central Committee Secretariat.
New Party Program: Modified the 1961 program, acknowledging difficulties in progressing to communism and criticizing years of ‘inertness’.
Limited Control:
The bureaucracy tried to maintain control, Yegor Ligachev was put in charge of party ideology.
Ryzhkov was in charge of implementing policy.
The old Central Committee initially stayed in place.
Avoid Khrushchev's fate: Gorbachev was determined to avoid the fate of Khrushchev who had been overthrown in 1964 to prevent him implementing plans to totally reorganise the leading bodies of the CPSU.
The January 1987 Central Committee meeting - Announced an economic and societal crisis, needing democratization of party and state political systems.
Elections: There were to be competitive elections, with a choice of candidates.
18th Congress: to union officials to stop ‘dancing cheek to cheek’ with economic managers. There will be increased workplace democracy.
advise trade unions to protect interests of their members which showed determination to press ahead with democratization policies and workplace democracy.
Extracts from Gorbachev’s speech to the 18th Congress of Soviet Trade Unions, April 1987.
Reforms proposed: Further reforms were proposed at a Central Committee meeting on 27–28 January 1988 which included a choice of candidates for elections to all local and regional soviets, and was eventually established by a new electoral law in December 1988.
Gorbachev, M., 1987, Perestroika, London, HarperCollins, pp. 54–5 and 111.
*28 June 1988, the CPSU’s 19th Party Conference was held in Moscow – the first time since 1941 that a party conference had been held.
The 19th Party Conference launched radical reforms meant to further reduce party control of government apparatus.
Successful Proposal: Proposed a new executive in the form of a presidential system, as well as a new all-union legislative body, to be called the Congress of People’s Deputies. Gorbachev at the 19th Party Conference, Moscow, June 1988.
President Role: Party officials are now accountable to the law
Civil Rights: Guarantee civil rights, and separate party and state organisations was a new constitution which was finally drafted in June 1989.
Extracts from the Central Committee Theses, passed by the 19th Party Conference of the CPSU, Moscow, June 1988.
Elections:
Elections to the Congress of People’s Deputies were held throughout the Soviet Union in March and April 1989 which was the first semi-free election in the Soviet Union since 1921. About 50 senior regional party secretaries who did not have reserved seats were defeated.
Gorbachev: The Congress met on 25 May 1989, to elect representatives from its members to sit on the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev was elected chairman which posed problems for Gorbachev because the sessions were televised, airing more criticism.
Critic: Yeltsin and Yeltsin, who, in November 1987, had been sacked as Moscow party leader, was elected in Moscow for one of its territorial seats and returned to political prominence and became an increasingly vocal critic of Gorbachev. Sakharov at the podium, addressing the first session of the Congress of People’s Deputies, 25 May 1989.
Yeltsin and other opponents of Gorbachev created the Inter-Regional Deputies’ Group which then managed to get into the new Supreme Soviet
Reforming the CPSU
Gorbachev’s Goal: To retain the party’s leading role through internal reforms for openness, tolerance, and non-interference, making it more responsive to the needs of the people.
Party Conference: Gorbachev proposed this at a Party conference, saying it should come with ways: ‘to further democratise the life of the Party and society as a whole’; yet made it clear that there would not be multi-party elections.
Genuine Elections: For party officials and conference delegates with competing candidates.
Party Conference Decision (June 1988):
Loss of control over economic policy and retained its leading position in the military and the KGB.
Restrictions on office terms could be held for 2, 5 years terms.
Separation of Party and State reduced economic control while new state structures had yet to establish their authority.
The Downfall: The weakening of the party led to its ultimate failure when, contrarily to Gorbachev’s expectations, the lack of trust/interest led to many leaving.
Nationalism and the Union
*Calls for Greater Autonomy: Increased unrest in the Republics led to more: Autonomy and even full independence from 1987 onwards which was especially marked in Armenia region of Nagorno- Karabakh region.
*The 'chauvinism' lead to the treatment of non-Russian nationalities during Stalin, and in 1924, shortly before his death, Lenin had been growing aware of Stalin’s position on non-Russian nationalities.
Brezhnev
*tried to create a ‘Soviet’ identity from Russian heritage as well as prioritising Russian-speaking over local dialects leading to corruption in the republics.
Elections:
*Gorbachev had the hope that fairer elections would seat more reformists. This didn’t happen, but extremists, with highly racist views were elected. The CPSU used to keep this in check.
*Also in The new Supreme Soviet referred to Gorbachev during the crisis relating to ethnic tensions as a ‘landmine under perestroika’, while Gorbachev stated that a lack of solution for his would have ‘far- reaching consequences for all of perestroika’.
*The Supreme Soviet of Georgia declared itself sovereign during an emergence of popular movement of nationalism. *Sajudis, from Lithuania, began gaining popular sovereignty and demanding greater sovereignty.
*The CPSU considered changes to nationalities policies during 1989, as well as more respect. *The CPSU had been able to get people to act in a ‘Soviet’ way. It was too fatal in turn.
Gorbachev’s Foreign Policy and its Consequences
Main Consequence
money and resources could be shifted from aid and armaments and, instead, used to overcome the stagnation of the Soviet economy and modernise Soviet industry.<