Late Ottoman History: Wars, Economic Shifts, and Cultural Modernization

The Trablusgarp War and the End of Ottoman North Africa

The Trablusgarp War took place between $1911$ and $1912$ as a conflict between the Kingdom of Italy and the Ottoman Empire. The primary cause of the war was the global race for colonialism, with Italy seeking to establish its own empire. Trablusgarp was the closest North African territory to Italy, making it a strategic target. Italy justified its aggression through various excuses, including the claim that the Ottoman Empire was mistreating the local population. Additionally, the weakness of the Ottoman Empire during this period encouraged Italian expansion. Diplomatically, Italy secured the support of European powers, notably through the Raccogni Agreement with Russia. In this secret deal, Italy agreed to support Russian interests in the Turkish Straits in exchange for Russia recognizing Italy’s right to Trablusgarp. Meanwhile, England supported the Italian cause by ensuring the Ottoman army could not pass through Egypt to reach the conflict zone.

Because the Ottoman Empire was unable to send a formal army due to rebellions in the Balkan states, the fact that the Ottoman navy was confined to the Golden Horn ($Haliç$), and the British blockade in Egypt, the defense consisted of volunteer officers. Notable volunteers included Major Fethi Bey, Major Enver Bey, and Captain Mustafa Kemal, who entered the region under the pseudonym Journalist Şerif Bey. Enver Paşı achieved military success in Benghazi, while Mustafa Kemal was successful in the regions of Derne and Tobruk. In response to Ottoman resistance, Italy landed troops on the $12$ Islands and Rhodes and established a blockade of the Dardanelles ($Çanakkale$). When the Balkan states revolted against the Ottoman Empire, the volunteer officers were recalled to Istanbul. This led to the Treaty of Ouchy ($Uşι ext{ Ant.}$), which resulted in Trablusgarp being ceded to Italy, marking the loss of the last Ottoman territory in North Africa. The $12$ Islands and Rhodes were left to Italy temporarily but were never recovered. Cultural ties were maintained by stipulating that the people of Trablusgarp would remain religiously bound to the Caliphate.

The First and Second Balkan Wars

The First Balkan War ($1912$) was fought by a coalition consisting of Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro against the Ottoman Empire. The causes included the rise of nationalism, Russia’s Pan-Slavism policy which incited Balkan nations, and provocation by European states against a weakened Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans were defeated due to the army becoming entangled in politics, the premature discharge of many professional soldiers, and intense rivalry among commanders. During this conflict, the long-standing church problem in the Balkans was resolved, uniting the Balkan nations against the Ottomans. The war concluded with the London Conference ($Londra ext{ Konferansı}$), which established the Midye-Enez line as the border; all territories to the west were ceded to the Balkan states, while the Ottomans retained only the east. Albania became the last Balkan state to leave the Ottoman Empire, signaling the end of the Ottomanism ideology. During the war, the Committee of Union and Progress ($İttihat ext{ ve Terakki Cemiyeti}$) seized power in the Bab-ı Ali Raid, a military coup that established their rule until $1918$.

The Second Balkan War broke out shortly after because the Balkan allies could not agree on the distribution of land from the first war, with Bulgaria receiving what the others considered an unfair share. Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania formed a coalition against Bulgaria. Romania joined specifically over the Dobruca dispute with Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire took advantage of the internal conflict among the Balkan states to join the war and reclaim lost territories, successfully recovering East Thrace including Edirne and Kırklareli. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Bucharest between the Balkan nations, while the Ottomans signed separate treaties with Bulgaria and Serbia. The Meriç River was established as the border. Following these wars, Turks remaining in the Balkans were reduced to minority status, leading to the ongoing Western Thrace Turkish minority issue. Large waves of Turkish migration from the Balkans to Anatolia began, creating housing shortages and unemployment in urban centers.

Evolution of Industrial Production and Ottoman Economy

Before the Industrial Revolution, production was centered in small workshops and governed by the Guild Organization ($Lonca ext{ Teşkilatı}$). Production relied on human, animal, water, and wind power. The Industrial Revolution began in the $18^{ ext{th}}$ century in England and was catalyzed in $1760$ when James Watt invented the steam engine. This shifted production from artisanal human power to machine power. The resulting need for raw materials and markets fueled the expansion of colonialism. The Ottoman Empire was negatively affected as the Lonca system could not compete with cheap, mass-produced European goods. The $1833$ Balta Limanı Trade Agreement exacerbated this by reducing customs duties for British goods, turning the Ottoman Empire into an open market and increasing its economic dependency on Europe.

In the $19^{ ext{th}}$ century, the Ottoman government attempted centralization but failed to stabilize the economy. For the first time, foreign debt was taken from England in $1854$ to cover Crimean War expenses. Due to the inability to repay these debts, the Public Debt Administration ($Duyun-u ext{ Umumiye İdaresi}$) was established, allowing foreign powers to seize $1/3$ of Ottoman revenues. In $1908$, the government shifted toward a National Economy Policy ($Milli ext{ İktisat Politikası}$) to support Turkish and Muslim merchants. To strengthen the industry, the government organized the $Sergi-i ext{ Umumi-i Osmani}$ in $1863$ to promote Ottoman products. Railway projects like the Ayıdn-İzmir line ($1856$) and the Hicaz railway ($1900-1908$) were initiated to improve trade. The Islah-ı Sanayi Commission was formed in $1864$ to increase customs duties to $5 ext{\%}$ and establish industry schools to train skilled workers.

Cultural and Artistic Modernization

The $19^{ ext{th}}$ century saw a transformation in entertainment, art, and urban life. Traditional arts like Ortaoyunu and Karagöz/Hacivat were joined by Western Theater and Opera. Sultan II. Mahmut initiated theater performances in the Dolmabahçe and Yıldız Palaces. Şinasi wrote the first Turkish play, "Şair Evlenmesi." In $1866$, Güllü Agop founded the Gedikpaş± Theater. Opera also gained popularity, with Sultan Abdólhamit II being its most dedicated patron. Sports expanded beyong traditional disciplines to include gymnastics, rowing, and football. The clubs Beşiktaş ($1903$), Galatasaray ($1905$), and Fenerbahçe ($1907$) were founded. Selim Sırrı Tarcan established the Ottoman National Olympic Committee in $1908$, leading to the first Olympic participation in $1912$.

In the visual arts, painting modernized as Sultan Mahmut placed his portraits in government offices. Students like Şeker Ahmet Paşı and Süleyman Seyyid were sent to Paris for training. Osman Hamdi Bey became the first Turkish artist to paint human figures in the Western style, founded the Sanayi-i Nefise Mektebi in $1883$, and established the Istanbul Archaeological Museum in $1891$. Sculpture gained traction after Sultan Abdólaziz had his own statue created following a trip to Europe. Music saw the abolition of the Janissary band, replaced by the $Mızıka-i ext{ Hümayun}$ led by the Donizetti Brothers. The press became a tool for public awareness with the first official newspaper $Takvim-i ext{ Vekayi}$ ($1831$) and the first private newspaper $Tercüman-ı ext{ Ahval}$. Urban life rapidly changed with migration; Istanbul's population grew from $400$ thousand in $1840$ to $800$ thousand in $1890$. European urban planning, fashion, and the concept of public opinion began to dominate daily life after the Tanzimat period.