Thinking psych

  • Prototypes

    • A mental image or best example that incorporates all the features we associate with a category.

    • It helps in quickly categorizing new information by comparing it to this ideal representation.

  • Schemas

    • Mental frameworks or blueprints that help organize and interpret information.

    • They encompass knowledge about objects, events, people, and situations, influencing how we perceive and remember things.

    • Examples include social schemas (stereotypes), event schemas (scripts for routines), and self-schemas.

  • Algorithms

    • A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

    • They are step-by-step processes that, if followed correctly, will always lead to the correct solution.

    • While effective, algorithms can be time-consuming for complex problems.

  • Heuristics

    • A simple thinking strategy or a mental shortcut that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently.

    • They are faster than algorithms but do not guarantee a correct solution; they are prone to error.

    • Heuristics simplify complex problems to make them more manageable.

  • Representative heuristic

    • Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.

    • This can lead us to ignore other relevant information, like base rates.

    • For example, assuming someone quiet and organized is a librarian rather than a salesperson, even though there are more salespeople.

  • Availability heuristic

    • Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

    • If instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

    • For example, fearing plane crashes more than car crashes because plane crashes are more heavily reported in the media.

  • Mental set

    • A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

    • While sometimes helpful, a mental set can hinder problem-solving if the old approach is not suitable for a new situation.

  • Priming

    • The awakening or activating of certain associations in memory.

    • Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention.

    • For example, showing a person the word "yellow" will make them recognize the word "banana" more quickly than if they hadn't seen "yellow".

  • Framing

    • The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

    • People's decisions can change based on whether the options are presented as potential gains or potential losses.

    • For example, a surgery with a "90% success rate" sounds more appealing than one with a "10% failure rate."

  • Gambler's fallacy

    • The mistaken belief that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are independent.

    • For example, after a coin lands on heads several times in a row, believing that it is "due" to land on tails next time.

  • Sunk-cost fallacy

    • The tendency to continue investing in a project or decision because of resources (time, money, effort) already spent, rather than making a rational decision based on future outcomes.

    • It's the idea that one should continue a venture to not "waste" what's already been invested, even if continuing is irrational.

  • Divergent thinking

    • A thought process used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions.

    • It involves brainstorming, free association, and thinking "outside the box" to produce a variety of ideas.

  • Convergent thinking

    • A thought process that narrows down multiple options to find a single, best solution to a problem.

    • It is often associated with finding the correct answer in intelligence tests or logical problem-solving.

  • Functional fixedness

    • A cognitive bias that limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.

    • It is an impediment to problem-solving, preventing individuals from seeing alternative uses for an object.

  • Metacognition

    • Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

    • It involves thinking about thinking, including monitoring and regulating one's own learning and problem-solving strategies.

    • Examples include self-monitoring comprehension while reading or planning how to approach a complex task.