Unit 1 Exam Study Guide: Jazz History and Evolution

Unit 1 Exam Study Guide

Early Jazz Foundations

The Significance of Congo Square:
- Congo Square, located in New Orleans, was a crucial location where enslaved Africans were permitted to gather on Sundays through the 19th century.
- It served as a melting pot of African, Afro-Caribbean, and European musical and cultural traditions.
- Participants would engage in communal music-making, dancing, and retention of African rhythmic and melodic practices.
- This direct retention and fusion of African musical elements with European instrumentation (e.g., brass band instruments) profoundly influenced the development of early jazz, laying a foundational rhythmic and improvisational groundwork.
The Multicultural History of New Orleans:
- New Orleans' unique position as a major port city and a former French and Spanish colony led to a rich blend of cultures.
- It was home to diverse populations including African Americans (both free people of color and formerly enslaved individuals), Creoles of Color, French, Spanish, Irish, German, and Italian immigrants.
- This cultural mosaic fostered a fertile environment for musical experimentation and fusion, drawing from spirituals, work songs, European classical music, folk music, and Caribbean rhythms.
- The intermingling of these traditions directly contributed to the emergence of jazz as a new musical form.
Buddy Bolden:
- Who is he? Charles "Buddy" Bolden (1877–1931) was a cornetist who led one of the first jazz bands in New Orleans around the turn of the 20th century.
- Why is he important to jazz? He is widely considered one of the seminal figures in jazz history, often credited with being the "first jazz musician" or the "father of jazz."
- His band was known for its raw, blues-infused, and improvisational style, characterized by a loud, powerful sound.
- Bolden's music, though never recorded, was influential in shaping the early New Orleans sound, synthesizing elements of ragtime, blues, spirituals, and brass band music.
The "12 Bar Blues":
- The 12-bar blues is one of the most prominent and foundational chord progressions in popular music, especially in blues, jazz, and rock and roll.
- It is a specific sequence of chords that typically lasts 12 measures (or "bars").
- The progression is predominantly built on the three basic chords of a key: the tonic (I), subdominant (IV), and dominant (V).
- A common standard 12-bar blues progression in the key of C would be:
  - Measures 1-4: I (C)
  - Measures 5-6: IV (F)
  - Measures 7-8: I (C)
  - Measures 9: V (G)
  - Measures 10: IV (F)
  - Measures 11-12: I (C) (often followed by a turnaround chord leading back to the top of the form).
- This structure provides a framework for improvisation and vocal storytelling, deeply embedding the blues aesthetic within jazz.
Origins of New Orleans Jazz:
- New Orleans jazz evolved from a blend of various musical traditions present in the city.
- Key influences include:
  - Ragtime: Syncopated piano music, providing rhythmic complexity.
  - Blues: Expressive vocal and instrumental music, conveying emotion, utilizing blue notes, and establishing the 12-bar form.
  - Spirituals and African-American Church Music: Call-and-response patterns, melodic inflections, and emotional depth.
  - Brass Band Music: European military band instrumentation (cornets, trombones, clarinets, drums) and marching band traditions, especially for parades and funerals (where music would transition from somber to upbeat).
  - European Folk and Dance Music: Quadrilles, polkas, and waltzes, contributing melodic and harmonic elements.
- Early jazz came from the convergence of these styles within the unique social and cultural environment of New Orleans around the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
First Jazz Recording:
- The very first jazz recording was made by the Original Dixieland Jass Band (ODJB) in February 1917.
- Their recording of "Livery Stable Blues" and "Dixie Jass Band One-Step" is historically significant as the first commercial release of music explicitly labeled and marketed as "jazz."
Jelly Roll Morton:
- Who is he? Ferdinand Joseph LaMothe (1890–1941), known as Jelly Roll Morton, was an American ragtime and early jazz pianist, bandleader, and composer.
- Why is he important to jazz? Morton was one of jazz's first significant composers and arrangers.
- He famously claimed to have "invented" jazz, a testament to his belief in his own pioneering role. While an overstatement, he was undeniably crucial in transitioning jazz from a purely improvisational, collective folk music to an art form with written arrangements.
- He meticulously crafted arrangements that sounded improvisatory, emphasizing the importance of "the Spanish tinge" (the influence of Latin American rhythms).
- His Red Hot Peppers recordings from the 1920s are seminal examples of early, architecturally structured jazz.
Louis Armstrong:
- Who is he? Louis Daniel Armstrong (1901–1971), nicknamed "Satchmo" or "Pops," was an American trumpeter, composer, vocalist, and actor.
- Why is he important to jazz? Armstrong is arguably the most influential figure in the history of jazz.
  - He revolutionized jazz from a collective ensemble music into a soloist's art form, establishing the improvising soloist as the central figure.
  - His virtuosic trumpet playing, characterized by its powerful tone, brilliant technique, and melodic inventiveness, set new standards for instrumentalists.
  - He popularized scat singing (vocal improvisation using nonsense syllables), making it a significant jazz vocal technique.
  - His emotional depth and joyful expressiveness became hallmarks of the jazz ethos.
- Types of entertainment: Throughout his career, Armstrong was known for a wide range of entertainment roles:
  - As a groundbreaking jazz trumpeter and bandleader.
  - As a highly influential vocalist, especially with his gravelly voice and scat singing.
  - As a popular entertainer and public personality, known for his charismatic stage presence and humor.
  - He appeared in numerous films and television shows, becoming a cultural icon beyond the jazz world.

The Swing Era

Stylistic Characteristics of Swing (Big Band) Music:
- How was it different from New Orleans jazz?
  - Instrumentation: Swing music saw the rise of the big band format, typically featuring 10-20 musicians divided into sections: saxophones, trombones, trumpets, and a rhythm section (piano, bass, drums, guitar).
  - Arrangement vs. Improvisation: While improvisation remained central, Swing emphasized written arrangements more heavily than New Orleans jazz. Sections would play pre-arranged melodic lines ( "riffs") which could be used as accompaniment or feature parts, often in a call-and-response style. Solos were typically shorter and fit within the arrangement's structure.
  - Swing Rhythm: A stronger emphasis on a driving, four-on-the-floor rhythm delivered by the rhythm section, creating a highly danceable pulse.
  - Smoother Sound: Generally, Swing had a more polished, less raucous sound compared to the often "hot" and collective improvisation of early New Orleans jazz.
  - Commercial Appeal: Swing was immensely popular, becoming the dominant form of American popular music during the 1930s and early 1940s, performed in large ballrooms and dance halls.
Instruments Typically Found in the Swing Big Band:
- Brass Section:
  - Trumpets (3-5)
  - Trombones (3-4)
- Reed Section:
  - Saxophones (alto, tenor, baritone, often doubling on clarinet) (3-5)
- Rhythm Section:
  - Piano
  - String Bass (replacing tuba)
  - Drums (with an expanded drum kit and more prominent role)
  - Guitar (often amplified, providing rhythmic chords or sometimes solos)
The Significance of the Count Basie Orchestra:
- Significance: The Count Basie Orchestra, led by pianist William "Count" Basie, was one of the most important and enduring big bands in jazz history, active for over 50 years.
- Known for its powerful swing, tight ensemble playing, and a distinctive focus on simplicity, space, and a blues-inflected style.
- Unlike more complex, composed big bands (like Duke Ellington's), Basie's band excelled at spontaneous arrangements and infectious rhythmic drive.
- "Head Chart" or "Head Arrangement":
  - A "head chart" or "head arrangement" is an unwritten, spontaneously created arrangement that a band learns and memorizes "by ear" (from the "head").
  - It is typically based on a simple melodic theme (the "head") and a set of chord changes, where musicians collectively develop background riffs, solos, and ensemble figures.
  - How was it used by Basie? Basie's band famously relied heavily on head arrangements, particularly in its early years.
  - This method allowed for a high degree of spontaneity, flexibility, and a deep sense of collective improvisation, giving the band an organic, bluesy feel that was looser and more dynamic than many other tightly arranged big bands.
  - The band members, with their strong blues roots and exceptional musical rapport, could develop complex arrangements on the fly, making each performance unique.
Coleman Hawkins:
- Who is he? Coleman Hawkins (1904–1969), nicknamed "Hawk," was an American jazz tenor saxophonist.
- What tune is he most known for? He is most famously known for his 1939 recording of "Body and Soul." This recording is a landmark in jazz improvisation.
- Characteristics of his playing style:
  - Harmonic Sophistication: Hawkins was a pioneer in melodic improvisation based on the underlying chord changes rather than just the melody. His solos explored complex harmonic extensions and substitutions.
  - Rich, Full Tone: He possessed a large, robust, and often biting tone, which became the standard for tenor saxophone playing.
  - Vertical Improvisation: His solos moved "vertically" through the chord changes, outlining their individual harmonies precisely.
  - Powerful Expressiveness: His playing was characterized by a commanding presence, harmonic ingenuity, and emotional depth.
Lester Young:
- Who is he? Lester Willis Young (1909–1959), nicknamed "Pres" or "Prez" by Billie Holiday, was an American jazz tenor saxophonist and clarinetist.
- Characteristics of his playing style:
  - Lighter, More Lyrical Tone: In contrast to Hawkins, Young developed a lighter, more relaxed, and lyrical tone on the tenor saxophone, which was highly influential for the "cool" jazz movement.
  - Horizontal Improvisation: His solos focused more on melodic lines that floated over the chord changes, emphasizing melodic invention and rhythmic subtlety rather than outlining individual chord tones.
  - Phrasing and Space: Young used silence and space effectively in his solos, creating a sense of effortless grace and swing.
  - Relaxed Swing Feel: His rhythm and phrasing were often described as laid-back or "cool," yet deeply swinging, with a distinctive approach to rhythm that anticipated bebop.
Ella Fitzgerald:
- Who is she? Ella Jane Fitzgerald (1917–1996) was an American jazz singer, often referred to as the "First Lady of Song" or "Queen of Jazz."
- Why is she an important figure in jazz?
  - She possessed an extraordinary vocal range, impeccable pitch, and a clear, agile voice.
  - Her musicality and ability to interpret lyrics with emotional depth made her a master of the Great American Songbook.
  - She broke racial and gender barriers, achieving immense international success and becoming one of the most beloved and respected vocalists of all time.
- What musical technique is she most known for? Ella Fitzgerald is most renowned for her virtuosic scat singing.
  - She was able to improvise vocal lines with the rhythmic and melodic complexity of an instrumentalist, often mimicking specific instruments like trumpets or saxophones.
  - Her scat solos were characterized by their creativity, swing, and technical brilliance.
Duke Ellington:
- Who is he? Edward Kennedy "Duke" Ellington (1899–1974) was an American composer, pianist, and leader of a jazz orchestra for over 50 years.
- Why is he important to jazz's history? Ellington is widely considered one of the most important figures in jazz and American music.
  - He elevated jazz as an art form through his sophisticated compositions and innovative arrangements.
  - His orchestra was a laboratory for musical experimentation, developing a unique and identifiable sound that stretched the boundaries of jazz.
  - He was an exceptionally prolific composer, writing thousands of pieces from popular tunes to extended suites and sacred concerts.
- What is his place among American musicians and composers? Duke Ellington is regarded as one of America's greatest composers, irrespective of genre.
  - His work transcended the label of "jazz composer" to be recognized as significant classical music in its own right.
  - He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969 and a Pulitzer Prize Special Citation posthumously in 1999 for his musical genius.
As a composer, what new ideas did Duke Ellington contribute to the big band?
- Specific Sound Palettes: Ellington wrote specifically for the unique talents and voices of his individual musicians (e.g., Johnny Hodges' alto sax sound, Bubber Miley's growl trumpet), rather than generic parts.
- Extended Compositional Forms: He moved beyond the standard 3-minute song format, composing multi-movement suites and tone poems, bringing a more classical architectural approach to jazz.
- "Jungle Sound": Especially in his early Cotton Club years, he explored exotic and "jungle" sounds using growling brass, plunger mutes, and dark harmonies, creating a distinctive sonic atmosphere.
- Innovative Orchestration and Voicing: Ellington's arrangements featured unusual instrument combinations and complex voicings, often blurring the lines between sections and creating rich, often dissonant, textures.
- Emphasis on Tone Color: He was a master of varying instrumental colors and textures, much like a classical orchestrator, to create specific moods and effects.

Bebop and its Aftermath

Charlie Parker:
- Who is he? Charles "Yardbird" or "Bird" Parker Jr. (1920–1955) was an American jazz saxophonist and composer.
- Why is he important to jazz? Charlie Parker was one of the two most influential figures (alongside Dizzy Gillespie) in the creation of bebop, revolutionizing jazz during the 1940s.
  - He was a virtuoso alto saxophonist with unparalleled technical facility and harmonic sophistication.
  - His improvisations were characterized by rapid tempos, complex melodic lines, and a profound understanding of harmony, using extended chords and chord substitutions.
  - He shifted the focus of improvisation towards individual melodic and rhythmic invention over the underlying harmony, influencing generations of jazz musicians.
Dizzy Gillespie:
- Who is he? John Birks "Dizzy" Gillespie (1917–1993) was an American jazz trumpeter, bandleader, composer, and vocalist.
- Why is he important to jazz? Dizzy Gillespie was a co-founder of bebop with Charlie Parker and one of the most important virtuosos and innovators in jazz history.
  - He was a brilliant trumpeter known for his extraordinary technical prowess, high notes, and complex, angular melodic lines.
  - He codified the harmonic and rhythmic concepts of bebop through his teaching, compositions, and big band arrangements, making bebop accessible to other musicians.
  - He was also a pioneer in fusing jazz with Afro-Cuban rhythms, creating Latin jazz.
Bebop:
- What is it? Bebop is a style of jazz that emerged in the early to mid-1940s. It was a radical departure from the dance-oriented Swing music, focusing instead on complex, virtuosic instrumental improvisation and sophisticated harmonies.
- Was it popular when it first came along? No, bebop was not widely popular when it first emerged.
- How did people respond to it?
  - Jazz musicians: Many younger musicians embraced it as an exciting new creative outlet, while some older, established swing musicians were initially resistant or found it too complex.
  - General public: The complex harmonies and fast tempos made it less accessible and danceable than Swing, leading to a smaller, more niche audience for bebop, often perceived as music for musicians rather than the masses.
  - Critics: Initial critical reception was mixed, with some hailing its innovation and others finding it too cerebral or lacking the broad appeal of swing.
How is bebop different from Swing? What are the musical characteristics that set them apart?
- Tempo: Bebop tempos are often much faster than Swing, featuring blistering speeds, though slower ballads also were part of the style.
- Rhythm:
  - Swing: Emphasized a strong, four-beat dance rhythm, making it highly accessible for dancing.
  - Bebop: Featured more complex and irregular rhythmic phrasing, often characterized by syncopated melodic lines that did not always align with the underlying pulse, making it less danceable.
- Harmony:
  - Swing: Relied on relatively simpler, diatonic harmonies, extended primarily by adding 6ths and 7ths.
  - Bebop: Employed much more complex harmonic language, including altered chords, extended harmonies (9ths, 11ths, 13ths), and frequent use of tritones and chromaticism. Often, improvisers would substitute chords not explicitly in the original progression.
- Melody:
  - Swing: Melodies were generally simpler, more singable, and often riff-based.
  - Bebop: Melodies (and improvisations) were angular, fragmented, and featured long, virtuosic strings of sixteenth notes combined with sudden rests, creating a jagged, unpredictable sound.
- Improvisation:
  - Swing: Solos were often shorter, melodic, and fit within the arrangement, sometimes based on embellishing the melody.
  - Bebop: Placed a much greater emphasis on extended, technically demanding, and harmonically advanced solos, often based entirely on the chord changes rather than the original melody.
- Band Size:
  - Swing: Characterized by large big bands (10-20+ musicians).
  - Bebop: Primarily performed by small combos (quartets, quintets), typically featuring a trumpet, saxophone, piano, bass, and drums.
Miles Davis:
- Who is he? Miles Dewey Davis III (1926–1991) was an American jazz trumpeter, bandleader, and composer.
- Why is he important to jazz? Miles Davis is one of the most significant and continually innovative figures in jazz history, responsible for leading or heavily influencing the development of several distinct jazz styles throughout his long career.
  - He was central to the birth of Cool Jazz (with the Birth of the Cool recordings).
  - He pioneered Hard Bop (with his 1950s quintets).
  - He was instrumental in popularizing Modal Jazz (with Kind of Blue, the best-selling jazz album ever).
  - He was a key figure in Jazz Fusion (with albums like Bitches Brew).
  - His distinctive, muted, and lyrical trumpet style, combined with his constant search for new musical directions, made him a towering figure of originality and influence.
"West Coast Jazz":
- "West Coast Jazz" is a subgenre of cool jazz that emerged in the 1950s, primarily associated with Los Angeles and California artists.
- It generally featured a lighter, more relaxed, and often more polished sound compared to the East Coast's Hard Bop.
- Characteristics often included:
  - Emphasis on written arrangements and counterpoint.
  - Lighter dynamics and a less aggressive rhythmic approach.
  - A delicate, often lyrical melodic style.
  - Instrumentation sometimes included French horn, flute, and tuba, alongside standard jazz instruments.
  - Often associated with white musicians, though many notable African American musicians were also part of the scene.
Musicians Associated with Cool Jazz:
- In addition to Miles Davis (especially his Birth of the Cool nonet),
- Lester Young (whose relaxed style influenced the movement)
- Gerry Mulligan (baritone saxophonist, leader of quartets without piano)
- Chet Baker (trumpeter and vocalist)
- Dave Brubeck (pianist and bandleader)
- Stan Getz (tenor saxophonist, particularly known for bossa nova but a cool jazz figure)
- Modern Jazz Quartet (MJQ) (known for their refined, chamber-music-like approach)
- Art Pepper (alto saxophonist)
- Paul Desmond (alto saxophonist with Dave Brubeck)
Chet Baker:
- Who is he? Chesney Henry "Chet" Baker (1929–1988) was an American jazz trumpeter and vocalist.
- What was he famous for?
  - Baker was highly famous for his cool, understated, and lyrical trumpet playing, which became a hallmark of the West Coast Cool Jazz sound.
  - Equally, he was renowned for his soft, melancholic, and intimate vocal style, often self-accompanying on trumpet.
  - His striking looks and romantic persona also contributed to his widespread fame as a jazz idol, though his career was greatly impacted by drug addiction.
Dave Brubeck:
- What Dave Brubeck tune did we listen to in class? The tune is "Take Five." (Found in Module 4)
- Why was Dave Brubeck significant?
  - Dave Brubeck (1920–2012) was an American jazz pianist and composer.
  - He was significant for his innovative use of unusual time signatures (e.g., $5/4$ in "Take Five," $9/8$ in "Blue Rondo à la Turk") which was revolutionary in jazz when most music adhered to $4/4$ or $3/4$ time.
  - His quartet, particularly with alto saxophonist Paul Desmond, achieved immense commercial success and brought jazz to a wider audience, demonstrating that intellectually challenging music could also be popular.
  - He integrated classical music influences and counterpoint into his jazz compositions and improvisations, pushing the boundaries of the genre."
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