AP World

Transition of political power and expectations under Tsar Alexander II.
Introduction of liberal reforms intended to modernize Russia.
- Aim for Russia to become a constitutional monarchy similar to Western Europe.
- Despite these intentions, real power remains with the Tsar and the court.

The emancipation was meant to free serfs and allow some land ownership.
In practice, serfs still owed redemption taxes, leading to economic burdens.
- Many remained tied to land under former landlords to repay debts.
Resulted in disappointment and disillusionment among liberal intellectuals and peasants.

Discontent among intellectuals led to the rise of radical ideas.
- Influence of Western revolutionary politics on Russian youth and intelligentsia.
Formation of groups collectively known as "Narodniks" or populists.
- Anarchistic ideology centered on replacing the Tsar to free the peasantry.
Divisions within the Narodnik groups on how to engage the peasantry.
- Some aimed to educate peasants; others resorted to violent revolutionary actions.
Notable group: Narodnaya Volya (People's Will), known for targeting Tsarist officials.

Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 as a result of terrorist actions by Narodnaya Volya.
- His assassination signaled a major shift in Russian politics.
His successor, Alexander III, implemented harsh political repression in response.

Reversal of the liberal reforms initiated by Alexander II.
Establishment of the Okhrana, a secret police force focused on rooting out revolutionary activity.
- Primarily targeting suspected radicals and dissidents.
Promotion of Russian nationalism emphasizing "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality."
- Attempt to homogenize the empire's diverse ethnic and cultural groups.

Non-Russian nationalities faced linguistic and cultural repression:
- Enforcement of Russian language and Orthodox Christianity as cultural norms.
Significant groups affected included Poles, Ukrainians, Finns, Lithuanians, and Jews.
- Jews targeted through pogroms and systemic discrimination.

The Russian Empire housed the largest Jewish population, primarily due to territorial control over Poland.
Jews faced increased repression and violence during Alexander III's reign.
- Led to a rise in Jewish nationalism and organized migration, particularly to the United States.

The legacy of Alexander II's reforms generated both hope and disappointment, leading to radical actions.
Alexander III's harsh response created greater nationalistic fervor and discontent among non-Russian populations.
The political landscape was marked by repression, radicalization, and the emergence of grassroots nationalist movements.