1.1-1.4

vocab

general terms

• nomads – people who move around instead of settling in one place, usually herders or hunters.

• imperial democracy – empire where the ruler listens to citizens’ representatives but still has strong central power.

• meritocracy – gov jobs given based on ability (exams in china), not birth.

• grand canal – huge waterway in china connecting north and south, used for trade and food transport.

• black earth coal – important fuel in china that powered early industry.

• protoindustrialization – small-scale industry before factories (like family workshops making cloth).

• porcelain – fine “china” pottery that was a major chinese export.

• tributary system – surrounding states give gifts & respect to china → in return, china lets them trade.

• kowtow ritual – bowing with head to ground to show respect to chinese emperor.

• scholar gentry – educated landowners in china who ran the government.

• foot binding – chinese practice of tightly binding women’s feet for beauty/status, showed patriarchy.

• wood block printing – chinese printing where text/images carved on wood → inked → pressed on paper.

• renaissance men – people skilled in many areas (arts, science, leadership).

• sinification – spread/adoption of chinese culture to neighbors like korea, japan, vietnam.

• feudalism – system where kings give land to lords in exchange for loyalty/military service.

• bushido – japanese samurai code of honor/loyalty.

• heian court – japanese elite culture in kyoto, focused on art, literature, beauty.

• minamoto – japanese clan that set up the first shogunate (military gov).

• chinese scholar bureaucracy – system of educated officials running china after passing civil service exams.

• polygamy – having more than one wife at the same time.

• guerilla warfare – small groups using surprise attacks instead of big battles.

key exam themes

• filial piety – confucian idea: children must respect and obey parents/elders.

• neo-confucianism – mix of confucianism + buddhism + daoism, spread in east asia.

• confucian view on women – women must respect men but men must also protect family; reinforced patriarchy.

• spread of chinese culture – writing, art, and confucian ideas spread to japan (heian) and korea.

• buddhism branches:

  • theravada – strict, focus on monks/meditation.

  • mahayana – more popular, worship buddha like a god.

  • tibetan – mystical/ritual based.

• champa rice – fast-growing rice from vietnam → boosted chinese population.

• transportation innovations – expansion of grand canal = easier food trade.

• steel & iron – mass-produced in china, used for tools/weapons.

• textiles & porcelain – major chinese exports to asia, islamic world, europe.

islamic world

• mamluks – enslaved soldiers in islamic world.

• mamluk sultanate – muslim dynasty in egypt where mamluks became rulers.

• sultan – muslim ruler.

• crusaders – european christians who fought muslims in the holy land.

• mongols – nomadic warriors from central asia, built largest land empire.

• rajput kingdoms – hindu warrior states in india.

• qutub minar – tall islamic tower in delhi, shows blending of islam & hindu culture.

• bhakti movement – hindu devotional movement focused on love for one god.

• sinhala dynasties – buddhist kingdoms in sri lanka.

• khmer empire – (not khmer rouge! that’s 1900s) → southeast asian empire, built angkor wat.

• sukhothai kingdom – thai kingdom, buddhist, known for art/architecture.

• city-state – independent city that rules itself (like mayan or italian cities).

americas

• mexica/aztecs – empire in mexico, known for conquest & human sacrifice.

• theocracy – gov ruled by religious leaders.

• pachacuti – inca ruler who expanded empire.

• inca empire – andes mountains empire, used mita system, road network.

• mita system – labor tax → people worked for gov (roads, farming, building).

• temple of the sun – major inca religious temple in cuzco.

• carpa nan – huge inca road system.

• maya – mesoamerican civilization → city-states, writing, astronomy.

• human sacrifice – religious practice (especially aztec) to honor gods.

• animism – belief that nature has spirits.

• mississippian society – mound-building culture in north america, matrilineal (lineage through mother).

• cahokia – largest mississippian city, known for massive mounds

global tapestry background

• all empires were shaped by regional trade

• Song Dynasty in China was the largest, wealthiest, & most innovative empire in the world

• Aztec Empire in Mesoamerica was influenced by an earlier empire (under mayans)

• trade across the sahara resulted in the west african empires of ghana and mali

• trade across the indian ocean resulted in large state sin zimbabwe as well as east africa, india, and southeast asia

• unity in central eurasia

  • emergence of nomadic group, the Mongols, from central asia

  • they conquered lands from central europe to the pacific ocean

  • created the largest land empire in human history

1.1 developments in east asia

• Song Dynasty had most diversity and innovation

• Neo-confucian teachings supported the government and shaped the social class system

• china developed the greatest manufacturing capability in the world

• the spread of confucianism and buddhism were arguably the greatest chinese influence

• bureaucracy

  • china had an imperial democracy where appointed officials carried out the empires policies

  • the bureaucracy had been there since the qin dynasty

  • under the song dynasty, the bureaucracy expanded

meritocracy & civil service exam

• emperor song taizu

• he expanded the educational opportunities to young men of the lower economic classes so they could score well on the civil service exams

• by scoring good, a highly desired job in the bureaucracy was obtainable

• the exams were based on the knowledge of confucian text

• the poor were underrepresented in the bureaucracy

• the chinese system allowed for more movement up in society

• the bureaucracy grew so much that the growth also led to its downfall

• there were so many jobs to the point where the payments started drying up chinas surplus wealth.

economic developments in post classical china

• Tang dynasty promoted agricultural development, improved roads/ canals, encouraged foreign trade, and spread technology

• this led to rapid growth during the song dynasty

• the grand canal was an inexpensive and efficient water transportation system that went over 30,000 miles

  • became the most populous trading area in the world

• gunpowder

  • created in previous chinese dynasties

  • song dynasty innovators made the first guns

  • spread throughout eurasia on the silk roads

• agricultural productivity

  • champa rice a fast ripening and drought resistant strain of rice from vietnam

  • allowed farming to spread, esp to areas where rice once couldn’t grow

  • allowed for a winter crop and a summer crop

  • human and animal manure on the fields helped enrich the soil

  • built irrigation systems

  • abundance of food grew the population

• manufacturing and trade

  • china discovered black earth which is coal

  • allowed them to produce cast iron goods

  • they learned to take carbon out to produce steel goods

  • used them to make tools as well as religious figures

  • led to food abundance bc of machines

  • protoindustrialization - families in rural areas made more goods than they can sell

    • relied on home based skills

    • artisans used porcelain and silk

      • porcelain was liked as it was strong but lightweight and a light color for painting over

    • compass was used in water navigation, ships were designed for more cargo, better water trading

• taxes

  • instead of laboring people to work on construction project, the song paid people to work

    • this increased flow of money and promoting economic growth

• tributes

  • the han dynasty had a tributary system

  • other states had to pay money or provide goods to honor the chinese emperor

  • song and later dynasties had the system too

  • emperor expected reps from other states to perform kowtow, bowing the head till it reaches the floor

social structures in china

• majority of people lived in urban areas but china became the most urbanized land during the song dynasty’s prime

chinas class structure

• bureaucratic expansion created a new social class of the scholar gentry who were deeply educated in confucian philosophy

  • they became the most influential class

  • under them were the farmers, artisans, peasants, and merchants

gender roles

• women were respected but were expected to defer to men

• they practiced foot binding for social class, men liked it, and to not participate in the public sphere

• it was banned in 1912

intellectual and cultural developments

• chinese invented wood block printing

• the first book was made of it

• chinas priviledged classes had increased access to literature

• literature was constantly consumed by confucian scholars

• europeans w literacy were called renaissance men

religious diversity in china

• buddhism came from china to india via silk roads

• three types of buddhism

  • theravada buddhism

    • strongest in southeast asi

    • spiritual growth through meditation and discipline

  • mahayana buddhism

    • growth for everyone

    • strongest in china and korea

  • tibetan busddhism

    • focused on chanting

    • mainly in tibet

• monks introduced buddhism by relating it to daoism

  • dharma = dao (the way)

  • zen/chan buddhism = buddhism + daoism

• why it became popular: fusion with chinese beliefs made buddhism attractive to locals

• monasteries (where monks lived together) appeared in most major cities

• problem: monasteries became an issue for tang bureaucracy

  • tang dynasty considered itself the "middle kingdom" (center of the world)

  • uncomfortable with a foreign religion becoming so important

  • buddhism pulled people away from china’s native religions → daoists and confucians became jealous

• government response: monasteries were closed and land seized

• result: even after crackdowns, chan buddhism stayed popular among ordinary chinese

• buddhism & neo-confucianism (song china)

  • song dynasty preferred confucianism but tolerated buddhism

  • buddhist ideas influenced confucians → neo-confucianism (blend of confucian, daoist, buddhist ideas)

  • filial piety (respect for elders & hierarchy) helped maintain political stability

  • printing made buddhist texts widely available to scholar-gentry

• japan

  • separated by sea → could control interaction with china

  • adopted buddhism, confucianism, woodblock printing, politics, art, literature

  • prince shotoku promoted buddhism, confucianism, shinto

  • heian period → chinese-inspired court culture, world’s first novel (tale of genji)

  • feudalism: emperor (symbolic), shogun (military leader), daimyo (landowners), samurai (warriors), peasants, artisans, merchants

  • bushido → loyalty, frugality, martial arts, honor unto death

  • daimyos had more real power than european nobles

• korea

  • shared land border with china → very close cultural borrowing

  • tributary relationship → centralized gov’t like china

  • adopted confucianism (for elites) and buddhism (for peasants)

  • used chinese writing system → later developed korean script (hangul)

  • powerful aristocracy blocked chinese-style reforms → civil service exam not open to peasants

• vietnam

  • traded with and learned from china but resisted chinese political control

  • adopted chinese writing system, architecture, merit-based bureaucracy

  • villages operated independently → loyalty to villages more than emperor

  • women had more independence than in china (no foot binding, no polygamy)

  • frequent uprisings, guerrilla warfare against chinese forces

• big picture

  • china was a cultural superpower; japan, korea, vietnam all adopted and adapted chinese traditions

  • each tried to balance sinification (assimilation) with preserving local culture

1.2 developments in dar al-islam

• after muhammad’s death (632) islam spread outward from arabia

  • by military actions

  • by merchants

  • by missionaries

  • geographic reach: india → spain

• many islamic leaders tolerated:

  • christians

  • jews

  • other monotheists (one god + good works)

• abbasid empire:

  • scholars traveled to baghdad

  • house of wisdom = major learning center

  • islamic community transferred knowledge across afro-eurasia

• decline of abbasids → replaced by other islamic empires

invasions and shifts in trade routes

• 1100s–1200s: abbasids confronted challenges

  • like china: conflict with central asian nomads

  • unlike china: european invaders

• egyptian mamluks:

  • purchased enslaved people (mamluks) — mostly ethnic turks from central asia

  • roles: soldiers → bureaucrats

  • more upward mobility than other enslaved people

  • seized control of egyptian government → mamluk sultanate (1250–1517)

  • prospered by facilitating trade in cotton + sugar between islamic world and europe

  • declined when portuguese + other europeans developed new sea routes

• seljuk turks:

  • central asian turks, also muslim

  • began conquering parts of middle east (11th century)

  • extended power almost to western china

  • seljuk leader called himself sultan → reduced abbasid caliph to chief sunni religious authority only

• crusaders:

  • abbasids allowed christian pilgrimages to holy sites (jerusalem, etc.)

  • seljuks restricted travel → european christians organized crusaders to reopen access

• mongols:

  • central asian conquerors

  • conquered remaining abbasid empire in 1258 → ended seljuk rule

  • pushed west but were stopped in egypt by the mamluks

• economic competition:

  • since 8th century, abbasids were a key link between asia, europe, north africa

  • goods + ideas flowed through empire

  • eventually: lost wealth + population → couldn’t afford canal repairs → farmland declined → cities decayed

cultural and social life

• islamic world fragmented politically but kept cultural unity

• many new states copied abbasid practices but had different ethnic bases

  • abbasid caliphate led by arabs + persians

  • later shaped by turkic peoples from central asia

    • mamluks (north africa)

    • seljuks (middle east)

    • delhi sultanate (south asia)

• by 16th century, 3 major islamic empires had turkic roots:

  • ottoman empire (turkey)

  • safavid empire (persia)

  • mughal empire (india)

• shared cultural region:

  • trade spread new goods + ideas

  • common use of sharia → similar legal systems

  • major universities:

    • baghdad (iraq)

    • cordoba (spain)

    • cairo (egypt)

    • bukhara (central asia)

cultural continuities

• prophet muhammad advised: “seek knowledge even unto china” → scholars learned widely

• carried on earlier thinkers’ work:

  • translated greek literary classics → arabic (saved aristotle + others)

  • adopted papermaking from china → passed to europe

  • studied indian mathematics texts → passed to europe

cultural innovations (golden age, baghdad)

• nasir al-din al-tusi:

  • work in logic, ethics, math, philosophy, medicine

  • built world’s most advanced observatory → produced accurate astronomical charts

  • studied relationships of triangle sides + angles → foundation of trigonometry as separate subject

• medical advances + hospital care improved in cities like cairo

• doctors + pharmacists required to pass exams for licenses

other scholars / cultural figures

• ibn khaldun (1332–1406):

  • historical accounts

  • founder of historiography (methods of historians) + sociology

• sufism:

  • mystical response to early umayyad luxury

  • emphasized introspection (not just intellectual study of qur’an)

  • sufis believed some truths couldn’t be grasped through learning

  • missionaries adapted to local cultures + traditions → blended elements → won converts

• sufi poet ‘a’ishah al-ba’uniyyah (1416–1507):

  • most prolific female muslim writer before 20th century

  • wrote “clear inspiration, on praise of the trusted one” → honored muhammad + referenced earlier poets

  • works describe her mystical journey

commerce, class, and diversity

• commerce powered golden age of natural + moral philosophy + arts

• merchants were more prestigious than in europe or asia

  • muhammad and his first wife had both been merchants

  • trade revival (silk roads, indian ocean, central asia) → merchants could grow wealthy

  • esteemed if fair + charitable (aligned with pillars of faith)

  • some merchants sent as missionaries

• in non-arab areas:

  • controlled by islamic caliphs → discrimination against non-arabs (rarely persecution)

  • faded by 9th century

  • soldiers forbidden from owning conquered land → countryside life mostly unchanged except tribute now went to islamic rulers instead of byzantines

slavery

• islam allowed slavery but with restrictions:

  • muslims could not enslave:

    • other muslims

    • jews

    • christians

    • zoroastrians

  • slaves imported from:

    • africa

    • kiev / kievan rus (belarus, russia, ukraine)

    • central asia

  • no hereditary slavery developed

  • many slaves converted → some freed afterward

• slave women:

  • could serve as concubines (even if man already had 4 wives)

  • more independence (could go to markets, run errands) than legal wives

  • only slave women allowed to dance / perform before unrelated men

  • some earned money → could buy freedom

free women in islam

• some “islamic” customs predated islam (central asia + byzantine)

  • covering heads + faces became standard → solidified under islam

  • hijab = dressing modestly or a specific covering

  • men also wore head coverings (turbans, skullcaps)

• women could study + read → not with unrelated men

• muhammad’s policies improved women’s status:

  • treated wives with love + devotion

  • dowries paid to future wife, not father

  • forbade female infanticide

  • first wife: educated, owned business → model for recognizing women’s abilities

• status compared to christian + jewish women: higher

  • could inherit property + keep it after marriage

  • could remarry if widowed

  • could receive cash settlement in divorce

  • sometimes could initiate divorce

  • could use birth control

  • in court: testimony worth half a man’s, but protected from retaliation

• rise of towns + cities → new limits on women’s rights (like elsewhere)

  • symbolized by veil + harem (private dwelling for wives, concubines, children)

islamic rule in spain

• umayyads ruled briefly in middle east but longer in spain

• 711: islamic forces defeated byzantines in north africa → invaded spain from south

• cordoba = capital of islamic spain

• 732: battle of tours (frankish victory) → stopped rapid islamic expansion into western europe

• europe mostly stayed christian, but muslims ruled spain ~7 centuries

• prosperity under islam:

  • like baghdad, cordoba practiced toleration: muslims, christians, jews coexisted

  • promoted trade: chinese + southeast asian products entered spain → spread to rest of europe

  • goods often shipped on dhows (long, thin hulls → great for cargo, not warfare)

• cultural + scholarly transfers:

  • al-andalus = center of learning

  • cordoba = world’s largest library at the time

  • ibn rushd (averroes): influential works on law, secular philosophy, natural sciences

  • interaction among muslims, christians, jews → cross-influence:

    • ibn rushd’s aristotle commentaries → influenced jewish philosopher maimonides (1135–1240)

    • maimonides blended aristotle’s reasoning + biblical interpretation → influenced christian philosophers (e.g., thomas aquinas, 1225–1274)

impact on europe

• islamic scholarship + scientific innovations + transfers from india + china → foundation for renaissance + scientific revolution in europe

• papermaking (china → via muslims → europe) = crucial for spreading ideas

key terms by theme

• political: empires → mamluk sultanate, seljuk turks, sultan, mongols, abbasid caliphate

• cultural: religion → mamluks, muhammad, crusaders, sufis

• cultural: golden age → house of wisdom, baghdad, nasir al-din al-tusi, ‘a’ishah al-ba’uniyyah

1.3 developments in south + southeast asia

political structures in south asia

southern india

• chola dynasty → ruled southern india 850–1267, extended rule to ceylon (sri lanka) in 11th century

• vijayanagara empire → 1336–1646, name means “the victorious city”

  • founded by brothers harihara & bukka from delhi sultanate

  • born hindu, converted to islam for upward mobility, reverted to hinduism to establish empire

  • overthrown in mid-1500s by muslim kingdoms

northern india

• rajput kingdoms → present-day pakistan, hindu clan-led kingdoms, frequent internal wars, no centralized government

• northwest mountain passes → allowed muslim invasions

• 8th century → islamic armies invaded pakistan, minimal impact due to isolation & rajput princesses limiting influence

• 11th century → islamic forces plundered northern india temples & shrines, built mosques on holy sites

• early 13th century → islamic forces conquered delhi & northern india → delhi sultanate (13th–16th century)

  • some hindus converted to islam voluntarily; others resisted

  • imposed jizya tax on non-muslims

  • no formal bureaucracy like chinese → sultans struggled to impose policies

  • defended against mongol invasions

  • eventually replaced by mughal empire in 1526

religion in south asia

• pre-islam: mostly hindu; smaller buddhist population

• hinduism → polytheistic, hierarchical caste system, multiple sacred texts

• islam → strictly monotheistic, no visual representations of allah, emphasized equality

• arrival of islam:

  • initially forceful, later more peaceful

  • most converts voluntary, often via merchant migration and marriage

  • islam attracted low-caste hindus seeking better social status

  • largest numbers of converts were buddhists due to corruption and raids weakening monasteries

  • islam did not erase caste system completely; low-caste converts often remained low status

social structures in south asia

• caste system remained strongest continuity → politically decentralized

• caste flexible → accommodated muslim merchants/migrants by occupation-based subcastes

• most low-caste hindus converting to islam did not achieve upward mobility; education more important

• islam had limited impact on gender relations → women remained in separate spheres

• southeast asia: women had more independence pre-islam; pattern continued post-conversion

cultural interactions in south asia

• intellectual exchange: arab astronomers & mathematicians built on indian algebra & geometry → translated to arabic → spread across dar al-islam

• numeral system called “arabic numerals” actually originated in india

• architecture: delhi sultanate blended hindu artistic details with islamic geometric patterns

• qutub minar → mosque built atop hindu temple; used materials from hindu & other religious shrines; giant leaning tower symbolizing islamic influence

bhakti movement

• began 12th century in southern india

• emphasized strong emotional attachment to deity rather than studying texts/rituals

• inclusive → appealed to women & low social status individuals

• famous bhakti figure → mira bai (16th century female poet)

• similar to sufis: mystical, inner reflection, less emphasis on strict rituals

• bhaktis spread hinduism; sufis spread islam

southeast asia

sea-based kingdoms

• srivijaya empire (670–1025, sumatra) → hindu, strong navy, charged fees for ships between india & china

• majapahit kingdom (1293–1520, java) → buddhist, 98 tributaries, controlled sea routes

land-based kingdoms

• sinhala dynasties (sri lanka) → rooted in north indian immigrants/merchants

  • buddhists arrived 3rd century BCE; monasteries & nunneries flourished

  • buddhist priests advised monarchs

  • government built reservoirs & canals → strong irrigation → economic growth

  • weakened by invasions from india & conflicts between monarchy & priests

• khmer empire / angkor kingdom (802–1431, near mekong river)

  • complex irrigation & drainage systems → rice harvested multiple times/year, reduced monsoon damage

  • capital: angkor thom → temples show indian cultural influence; hindu artwork initially, later added buddhist sculptures (12th–13th centuries)

  • angkor wat built ~same period, half a mile from angkor thom, ornate buddhist temple complex

  • 1431 → sukhothai kingdom invaded, ended khmer rule

islam in southeast asia

• first converts = local merchants (700s) → wanted better trade with muslim merchants

• islam most popular in urban areas

• spread to sumatra, java, malay peninsula → today indonesia = most muslim population in world

• sufis = tolerant missionaries → allowed honoring local deities → eased conversion

illustrative examples

beliefs & practices

• bhakti movement

• sufism

• buddhist monasticism

hindu/buddhist states

• vijayanagara empire

• srivijaya empire

• rajput kingdoms

• delhi sultanate

• majapahit kingdom

• sukhothai kingdom

• sinhala dynasties

• khmer empire

cultural blending / architecture / language

• qutub minar

• urdu (grammatical pattern of hindi + vocabulary from arabic & some farsi)

1.4 developments in the americas

Mississippian Culture

• Emerged in 700s–800s in eastern united states, centered in the mississippi river valley

• Built enormous earthen mounds; largest is cahokia in southern illinois

• Government and Society:

  • Chief called the great sun ruled each town

  • Rigid class structure: priests/nobles → farmers, hunters, merchants, artisans → slaves (often prisoners of war)

  • Matrilineal society: social standing from mother’s side; title passed to sister’s son

• Decline: abandoned cahokia ~1450; other cities by 1600. Possible causes: flooding, crop failures, disease

Chaco and Mesa Verde

• Developed ways to collect, transport, and store water efficiently

• Chaco: large housing structures of stone and clay, hundreds of rooms

• Mesa Verde: multi-story homes built into cliffs using sandstone bricks

• Declined in late 13th century due to drying climate

Maya City-States

• Height 250–900 ce; southern mexico, belize, honduras, guatemala

• ~40 cities, population up to 2 million

• Government: city-states ruled by kings; wars common but mostly for tribute and captives

• King claimed descent from a god; royal rule usually father → son

• Citizens provided taxes (crops) and labor; no standing armies

• Religion, Science, Technology:

  • Polytheistic; offerings and human sacrifices

  • Concept of 0, complex writing system, rubber production

  • Astronomy and calendar for rituals and warfare; observatories atop pyramids (e.g., chichen itza)

  • Priests male or female; ceremonies honored sun, rain, corn deities

Aztecs

• Migrated to central mexico in 1200s; founded tenochtitlan in 1325

• Empire stretched gulf of mexico → pacific ocean

• Capital: tenochtitlan on swamp island, population ~200,000

• Aqueducts, pyramids, floating gardens (chinampas), irrigation ditches

• Government, Economy, Society:

  • Tribute system from conquered peoples; provinces overseen by officials

  • Theocracy: emperor (“great speaker”), nobles, scribes/healers, craftspeople/traders, peasants/soldiers, enslaved people

  • Pochteca: merchant class trading luxury goods

• Religion: hundreds of deities; rituals, feast days, human sacrifice

• Role of Women: wove tribute cloth; could be priests, midwives, healers, merchants, or scribes

• Decline: late 15th century; low technology, overexpansion, tribute resentment, spanish arrival 1519

Inca

• 1438: pachacuti began uniting tribes near cusco, peru

• Empire extended ecuador → chile; grandson huayna capac ruled by 1493

• Government, Economy, Society:

  • Four provinces with governors and bureaucracy

  • Conquered people integrated based on loyalty; mit’a system (mandatory labor) instead of tribute

• Religion: inca = “people of the sun”; inti = sun god; royal ancestor veneration; priests consulted for decisions

• Achievements:

  • Quipu for record-keeping

  • Terraced agriculture using waru waru method

  • Bridges and roads (carpa nan, ~25,000 miles)

• Decline: 1532 spanish conquistadors arrived during civil war; diseases and civil unrest contributed; core conquered by 1533, outposts until 1572

• Machu picchu ruins remain a major tourist site

Continuities and Diversity

• Mesoamerican cultures debated as either derived from olmecs or developed independently

• Olmec influences: feathered snake-god, ritual sacrifices, pyramids, ball courts

Comparison of Three Civilizations

Illustrative Examples: State Systems in the Americas

• Maya city-states

• Aztec empire

• Inca empire