Empire and Resistance in the Mediterranean: Study Notes (Bullet Points)
Imperial Egypt and Nubia (1550 B.C.E.–350 C.E.)
FOCUS question: How did Egyptians and Nubians interact in the two imperial periods that united them politically?
Geographic context: Northeast Africa; Nile Valley; Egypt and Nubia dominated the Nile Valley from around 3000 ext{ B.C.E.}; Extended influence north into Asia and south into Nubia during the New Kingdom; later Nubia dominates and conquers Egypt (Napata, 730–660 B.C.E.).
Timeline overview:
New Kingdom Egypt (ca. 1550–1070 ext{ B.C.E.}): expansion north into Asia and south into Nubia; immense prosperity from conquest; monumental building programs; Hatshepsut’s reign and mortuary temple at Thebes.
Nubia rises to power and rules Egypt (ca. 730–660 ext{ B.C.E.}): Napata capital; rulers adopt Egyptian culture to legitimize rule; Egyptian cultural influence continues in Nubia.
Nubia’s later period: Meroe (ca. 400 ext{ B.C.E.}–350 ext{ C.E.}) becomes a cultural and commercial center; later contact with Greeks and Romans; eventual conquest by Axum in 350 ext{ C.E.}.
The imperial pattern:
Egypt expands beyond its borders; interactions with the eastern Mediterranean system (Chapter 2) via diplomacy with vassal states; some local cultures assimilated, others resisted.
Nubia assimilates Egyptian culture after conquering Egypt; adoption of Egyptian religious and monumental practices; local Nubian traditions persist (e.g., depictions of African features; Nubian kings depicted with local features and attire).
The New Kingdom imperial system (1550–1070 B.C.E.):
Military expansion into Syria-Palestine and Nubia; campaigns of Thutmose III (r. 1479–1425 ext{ B.C.E.}) into Syria 17 times; Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 ext{ B.C.E.}) at the Battle of Qadesh (1275 B.C.E.) against the Hittites; long campaigns in Nubia south of Egypt.
Economic consequences: conquests bring riches; massive temple and tomb building; Hatshepsut’s expedition to Punt (depicted in Thebes) funded by booty and trade.
Hatshepsut (r. 1473–1458 ext{ B.C.E.}): built a mortuary temple at Thebes; depicted Punt voyage; the walls celebrate maritime expedition; exceptional female ruler, though not the only powerful woman in New Kingdom.
Deir el Medina: a village of artisans (including sculptor Qen) whose work supported the king’s tombs and religious monuments; workers lived in a workers’ village supplied by state granaries; two shifts of four hours each; a model of organized imperial labor.
Administrative structure: New Kingdom Egypt engaged in diplomacy with vassal rulers in Syria-Palestine; tolerance toward vassals and sometimes acceptance of subordinates’ cultural practices; in Nubia, Egyptianized administration and temple-building; Nubian elites (e.g., Prince Hekanefer) adopting Egyptian culture to rise in the administration.
Nubia’s rise and Egypt’s decline (late period):
After the eastern Mediterranean system collapsed around 1200 ext{ B.C.E.}, Egypt’s empire dissolved; Nubia gains independence by ca. 1070 ext{ B.C.E.} and develops a centralized Nubian state.
Napata as capital; Nubians expand Theban temple networks and adopt Egyptian burial practices (pyramids rather than earth mounds); Nubian rulers use Egyptian language and hieroglyphs for inscriptions; Nubians bury their kings with Egyptian-style ritual and artifacts; later, local Nubian traditions persist alongside Egyptian influences.
The Nubian Kingdom of Meroe (ca. 400 ext{ B.C.E.}–350 ext{ C.E.}):
Capital shifts to Meroe to capitalize on fertile land and cross-regional trade; trade links extend into sub-Saharan Africa and into the Red Sea networks.
During long periods of peace, Greco-Roman contact flourishes; luxury goods from Nubia (gold, ivory, spices, animals) flow to the Mediterranean; Axum (to the east along the Red Sea) becomes Rome’s preferred African trade link.
By the second century B.C.E., Meroites develop their own language (later scripts show Egyptian influence with local elements).
Women’s high status in Meroe: kings are followed by sisters’ sons in succession; several women become rulers from the second century B.C.E.; queens depicted as defeating enemies and honoring gods; Greeks and Romans misread material as suggesting queens always ruled Nubia.
Cultural exchange with Rome: exchanges of luxury goods and ideas; but misinterpretations persist in classical texts.
See the Queen Amanitare (Seeing the Past): a gate temple at Naga where the late Meroitic temple blends Egyptian and local styles; the queen pictured with the king, both in Egyptian-style poses, but with Nubian features and attire; the temple honors Apedemak, a Nubian lion god.
Summary implications:
Egypt’s imperial form and Nubia’s later imperial ascendancy illustrate how empires can shift power centers yet preserve cultural continuity.
Assimilation and absorption of other cultures can produce unique local-global syntheses (e.g., Nubian adoption of Egyptian culture while maintaining Nubian traditions).
The long-term dynamics of empire included both integration and resistance, with Nubia as a case of a power center asserting independence and reusing imperial frameworks for legitimacy.
Rise and Fall of the Assyrian Empire (900–612 B.C.E.)
FOCUS question: What kind of power structure did the Assyrians impose on their subjects, and how did it lead to cultural assimilation in the empire?
Core features of the Assyrian state:
Military-first empire-building from ca. 860 ext{ B.C.E.} onward; expanded to dominate Southwest Asia for about 250 ext{ years}.
The empire relied on a large supply of weapons, clothing, food, and particularly manpower (horses and soldiers).
Deportation policy: conquered populations forcibly relocated to different regions to serve as labor on farms and construction, to reduce rebellion and supply manpower; some retorned to the army.
Policy rationale: indirect rule favored to maximize wealth and resources; rulers preferred not to govern directly but extracted tribute and taxes; local kings retained some authority only if they submitted and paid tribute.
Imperial governance and administration:
Indirect rule: local kings remained on throne but were subordinate to the Assyrian king; direct rule exercised only when necessary due to rebellion.
Tribute system: annual oaths and tribute ceremonies reinforced loyalty to the Assyrian king; conquered territories provided resources and goods.
Deportation as labor force and control mechanism; deported populations eventually adopt local customs and languages, promoting assimilation in long run.
Social and gender aspects:
Military culture dominated; women’s roles limited in the core, though queens and queens-mothers could influence politics (e.g., Queen Naqia, mother of Esarhaddon) who acted as royal allies and oath-makers for successors; such influence generally derived from royal status rather than independent political power.
Cultural exchange and adaptability:
The Assyrians were open to foreign influences in literature, architecture, crafts, and religion, incorporating elements from conquered regions.
Aramaic emerges as the empire’s lingua franca due to deportations and contact with diverse peoples; the Phoenician alphabet spreads through the empire and beyond.
They imitated Syrian palaces in architecture; Syrian designs appear in jewelry and ivory carvings; outside influences in religion—attempts to harmonize Assur with Babylonian ideas in religion.
The Phoenician alphabet (and Aramaic script) spreads to Greek and other languages, shaping the alphabetic system used across the Mediterranean.
Key cultural and intellectual legacies:
Assurbanipal’s library at Nineveh becomes the richest collection of Babylonian literature; includes copies of the Epic of Gilgamesh.
The empire’s openness to outside ideas fosters cross-cultural exchange and the diffusion of knowledge.
The decline and fall:
663 B.C.E.: Assurbanipal invades and loots Egypt; 647 B.C.E.: Elam falls to Assyria; the empire reaches peak wealth yet faces internal succession crises.
After Assurbanipal’s death (ca. 631 ext{ B.C.E.}), Neo-Babylonian and Median forces attack; by 612 ext{ B.C.E.} Nineveh falls to combined forces of the Chaldeans and Medes; northern Syria remains resistant for a few more years but the empire dissolves.
Structural weaknesses: centralized monarchy depended on wealth from conquered lands; when military power faltered, wealth dried up; internal dynastic strife weakened central authority.
Aftermath and legacy:
Neo-Babylonians restore order, expand territories (Nebuchadnezzar II, r. 604–562 ext{ B.C.E.}); deportations and city-building continue.
The Assyrian system provides a template for imperial rule—heavy reliance on military power and deportation for control, with long-term implications for governance in Southwest Asia.
The Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.E.)
FOCUS question: What imperial vision and style of government marked the rise of the vast Persian Empire and allowed it to endure for over two hundred years?
Origins and expansion:
Cyrus the Great (r. 559–530 ext{ B.C.E.}) founded the Achaemenid Empire; rapidly annexed the Neo-Babylonian empire and central Iranian states.
Cambyses (r. 530–522 ext{ B.C.E.}) adds Egypt to the empire; by 480 ext{ B.C.E.} the empire stretched from western India to the Mediterranean and from Egypt to Central Asia.
The Persian imperial span lasted through multiple dynasties: Achaemenids (559–330 B.C.E.), Seleucids (323–83 B.C.E.), Parthians (247 B.C.E.–224 C.E.), and Sasanids (224–651 C.E.).
Imperial structure and governance:
Darius I (r. 521–486 ext{ B.C.E.}) restructured the empire into twenty provinces, or satrapies, each ruled by a satrap (Persian administrator); required tribute and troops.
Provincial administration connected by a vast road system; Royal Road (Susa to Sardis) of about 1600 ext{ miles}; rest posts and relay stations enable rapid communications; the king’s messengers are the "eyes and ears of the king".
Local integration over centralization: Persians often acted as flexible rulers, adopting local customs and religious rituals; they retained control by respecting local identities and integrating themselves into local structures.
Administration of diverse peoples:
Use of subject peoples’ talents: Phoenician, Cypriot, and Ionian sailors; Arabian camel drivers; North African charioteers; Aramaic language and script used for cross-border administration; Old Persian for royal inscriptions; Babylonian and Elamite used in multilingual contexts.
Writing and language: Old Persian script (in cuneiform-inspired alphabet) created for royal inscriptions; Aramaic script used broadly; three-language inscriptions (Old Persian, Babylonian, Elamite) to demonstrate empire unity.
Trade and economy: coinage emerges around 650 ext{ B.C.E.} (Lydia); expands across empire due to monetary system and perdagangan; coinage facilitates mobility of the empire’s resources.
Religion and culture:
Zoroastrianism as a central religious framework; dualism between good and evil; Ahuramazda as the “wise lord”; the Avesta contains Gathas as sacred hymns; Magi (priests) oversee rituals; fire and water are (in Zoroastrian practice) central but temples were not built; open-air sacrifice; haoma/ soma-like ritual stimulants.
Persian rulers generally respect local gods and rituals; Cyrus allows Judaean exiles to return to Jerusalem; Persians present emperors as legitimate local rulers who protect and sustain local customs.
The king depicted beside the winged sun disk with Ahuramazda symbol in reliefs; rulers present themselves as guardians of truth and order within a cosmopolitan order.
Imperial administration and law:
The empire emphasizes infrastructure, administration, and bureaucratic efficiency; Aramaic script broadens communication; integration of Greek, Egyptian, and other literatures through multilingual inscriptions.
Cultural and linguistic legacies:
Aramaic becomes a lingua franca across the empire; Alphabets spread to the east (India) and west; coinage and standardized weights facilitate trade.
The Persians are often described as tolerant rulers who restore and preserve local traditions, sometimes reintroducing earlier dynastic names and rituals to legitimize continuity.
The Persian approach to empire and its endurance:
Multicultural empire: rulers treated as heads of a federation rather than as a single Persianizing state; acceptance of local identities lowered resistance and fostered stability over centuries.
The decline came with the conquest by Alexander the Great in 330 B.C.E.; Persian governance provided a model for later Hellenistic and regional polities.
Counterpoint: On the Edge of Empire: The People of Ancient Greece (800–500 B.C.E.)
FOCUS question: What significant political and cultural developments emerged in Greece in the early first millennium B.C.E.?
Greek colonization (c. 800–500 ext{ B.C.E.}):
The Aegean region’s geography (mountainous terrain, limited arable land) pushed Greeks to sail widely and establish colonies across the Mediterranean and into the Black Sea, including east to Asia Minor and the Black Sea, and west to southern Italy, Sicily, southern France, Spain, and the Libyan coast.
Economic bases of colonies varied: grain from fertile lands, timber and tin from outposts; some ports specialized in trade with major powers like Egypt and Mesopotamia; colonies strengthened overall connections with the wider world.
Language and alphabet:
Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, but uniquely added vowels, enabling more precise representation of their language; the Greek alphabet thus shaped later alphabetic scripts in the West (the vowels-into-alphabet innovation is a key cultural transfer).
The Phoenician alphabet’s influence expands across the Mediterranean through Phoenician and Greek writers and traders.
Cultural exchange and influence:
Greek colonization facilitated exchange of ideas, practices, and people with Near Eastern and Egyptian cultures; Greek artisans drew on Egyptian and Near Eastern art, while Egyptians and others adopted Greek and later Hellenistic styles.
Growth of the city-state (polis) and political experimentation:
Population growth (mid-8th century B.C.E.) leads to city-state formation; the polis is a self-governing community of citizens; governance is organized by officials drawn from the citizen body.
Most inhabitants were not citizens; citizenship was restricted typically to native-born, male landowners; women, the landless, slaves, and foreigners excluded from government.
Political systems in the poleis:
Aristocratic dominance gradually challenged as wealth broadens; several city-states shift toward tyranny (rule by one) from 650–500 B.C.E.; tyranny begins as a populist or oligarchic response but often yields to other forms.
Oligarchy: government by a small, typically wealthy elite; Democracy: rule by the people; both Athens and Sparta exemplify these models.
Athens and Sparta as leading examples:
Athens: early form of democracy; Pericles’s 430 B.C.E. speech describes a model where all citizens over 18 participate in policy in a public assembly; a Council of 500 selected by lot runs daily affairs; service on the council limited to two years to prevent concentration of power.
Sparta: oligarchic system with a strong military focus; assembly of male citizens; a Council of 30; five annually elected officials; dual kingship; real power resides in the oligarchic structure and aristocratic governance.
The Persian Wars and their consequences:
Marathon (490 B.C.E.): Athenians defeat Persians using heavy infantry and hoplite warfare; Salamis (480 B.C.E.)—Greek navy defeats the Persian fleet; subsequent victories consolidate Greek resistance in the Aegean.
Outcomes: roughly thirty Greek city-states form an unprecedented coalition; Sparta and Athens gain prestige; the Peloponnesian League (Sparta-led) vs. Delian League (Athens-led) emerge as competing alliances; wealth and political organization support cultural and intellectual advances in the ensuing classical era.
The Peloponnesian War and aftershocks (431–404 B.C.E.):
Prolonged conflict depletes military and economic resources; Athenians become increasingly authoritarian during wartime; Melos massacre illustrates brutal measures against neutrals.
Sparta’s victory in 404 B.C.E. ends Athenian supremacy; a power vacuum leads to continued struggles among Greek city-states.
Macedonian ascent and the end of the independent polis era:
Macedonia (to the north) rises to power; Phillip II (r. 359–336 ext{ B.C.E.}) refines military tactics (long spears, coordinated infantry and cavalry) and defeats the southern city-states in 338 ext{ B.C.E.}, forming a unified Greek-speaking world under Macedonian leadership.
The era of independent Greek city-states ends as Macedonian hegemony expands, setting the stage for the Hellenistic period following Alexander the Great.
Maps and cultural geography:
Map 4.5: Greeks and Phoenicians in the Mediterranean, c. 800–500 B.C.E.; shows colonies, trade routes, and the diffusion of Greek and Phoenician influence across the sea and into Africa.
Map 4.6: The Eastern Mediterranean in the Classical period; outlines the expansion of the Persian, Greek, and later Hellenistic spheres and the interaction among city-states and empires.
The wider significance:
Greek political experiments—democracy in Athens, oligarchy in Sparta—become foundational for later Western political thought.
The Greek experience of belonging to a diaspora of city-states spanning the Aegean and the Mediterranean illustrates early globalization and cross-cultural exchange; it also foreshadows later interactions with Persians, Egyptians, and other major powers.
The concept of empire in the Greco-Roman world emerges through both collaboration and conflict with neighboring empires and through the diffusion of ideas (alphabet, art, political theory).
Important cross-cutting concepts and terms
empire: a large political unit that imposes its rule over diverse regions, peoples, and cultures; can take many forms. The chapters discuss how empires form, how they govern, how they assimilate or resist, and how local cultures influence imperial rule.
assimilation/absorption: a process where one culture adopts the traditions of another; in Assyria and Nubia, for instance, local populations adopt imperial cultures while maintaining some native practices.
vassal and tribute: subordinates govern local territories and pay tribute to the empire; the maintenance of loyalty is protected by military force or diplomatic arrangements.
deportation: relocation of conquered populations to other parts of the empire to provide labor and reduce rebellion; this policy has long-term cultural and linguistic consequences (e.g., Aramaic as lingua franca).
satrapies: administrative provinces in the Persian Empire, each with a satrap and a network of roads and messengers to maintain control over a vast and diverse realm.
Royal Road: a central artery of the Persian road system enabling communication and control across the empire; approx. 1600 ext{ miles} long.
Aramaic and Old Persian: languages that facilitated administration and cross-cultural communication within the Persian Empire; Aramaic becomes a widespread lingua franca; Old Persian appears in royal inscriptions.
coinage: a monetary reform that standardizes value and facilitates trade across vast territories; first broadly used coinage in the region emerges around 650 ext{ B.C.E.} (Lydia) and is adopted across empires.
religious tolerance and local identity: Persian rulers often restore local traditions and gods, using a legitimacy framework that respects diverse cultures; Cyrus’s policy toward Judeans is a classic example.
Zoroastrianism: the religion of the Persian heartland; dualistic worldview (good vs. evil) and Ahuramazda as the divine force guiding truth; influenced later religious traditions in the region.
sources and historiography: the Hebrew Bible as a source for Israel/Judah under Assyrian rule; the library of Assurbanipal as a major reservoir of Mesopotamian literature; the blending of literary and archaeological evidence in reconstructing empires.
Seeings the Past: case studies (e.g., Queen Amanitare and Meroite temple architecture) illustrate how art and monuments reveal intercultural contact and political messaging across empires.
Connections to broader themes
The emergence of empires from 1550 B.C.E. to 330 B.C.E. reflects a broader pattern of state formation across Asia and North Africa, with widespread consequences for political organization, economy, culture, and religion.
Cultural exchange occurs on multiple levels: conquest, trade, diplomacy, and migration; empires both homogenize and diversify; local identities persist and influence imperial practice.
The Greek, Persian, Assyrian, Egyptian, and Nubian experiences offer contrasting models of governance, including centralized monarchies, bureaucratic rule, indirect rule, and collaborative forms of empire-building.
The study of these empires illustrates how power, culture, language, and religion intersect to shape long-term world history, including later Mediterranean and Eurasian civilizations.
Key figures and terms to remember
Thutmose III: Egyptian king who expanded Egypt into Syria-Palestine; r. 1479–1425 ext{ B.C.E.}
Ramesses II: Egyptian pharaoh who fought the Battle of Qadesh, 1275 ext{ B.C.E.}; preservation of imperial order in the Levant; r. 1279–1213 ext{ B.C.E.}
Hatshepsut: female pharaoh; important for temple-building and Punt expedition; Thebes mortuary temple imagery; r. 1473–1458 ext{ B.C.E.}
Prince Hekanefer: Nubian elite who adopted Egyptian dress; demonstrates cultural blending in imperial administration.
Piye: Nubian king who reunified Egypt by marching to Memphis; ca. 730 ext{ B.C.E.}
Naqia: Assyrian queen mother who shaped Esarhaddon’s succession; illustrates royal female influence in Assyria.
Assurbanipal: king who built the Nineveh library; r. 668–631 ext{ B.C.E.}
Cyrus the Great: founder of the Persian Empire; r. 559–530 ext{ B.C.E.}
Darius I: reorganized the Persian Empire into satrapies; r. 521–486 ext{ B.C.E.}
Cambyses: expanded Persian rule to Egypt; r. 530–522 ext{ B.C.E.}
Ahuramazda: chief deity of Zoroastrianism; “wise lord”; central in Persian religious philosophy.
Gathas: hymns of Zoroaster contained in the Avesta.
Aramaic: administrative lingua franca across the Persian and Assyrian empires.
Old Persian: language and script used for royal inscriptions in the Achaemenid empire.
satrapy: provincial unit in the Persian Empire; each governed by a satrap.
Royal Road: major Persian highway enabling imperial administration across vast distances.
Phoenician alphabet: ancestral script influencing many later alphabets, including Greek; key to cross-cultural exchange across the Mediterranean.
Delian League and Peloponnesian League: alliances formed during the Classical Greek era for mutual defense and power projection; reflect competition among city-states and the emergence of imperial-like structures in Greece.
Polis: the Greek city-state; foundational unit of Greek political life; early democracy in Athens and oligarchy in Sparta.
Phalanx: military formation developed in Greece; infantry-based warfare that emphasized unity and discipline.
The Persian Wars: major conflict between Greek city-states and the Persian Empire, shaping the political and cultural identity of Classical Greece.
(Note: All dates and numerical references in this document are presented in LaTeX math format for consistency, e.g., 1550 ext{ B.C.E.}, 1460 ext{ B.C.E.}, 1600 ext{ miles}, etc.)